Mazi K Mazar Pdf Free Download

We assessed amounts, composition and net accumulation rates every ~. 15. days of beach macro litter (≥. 2.5. cm) on 4 Mediterranean beaches, on Corfu island, N. Ionian Sea, taking into account natural and anthropogenic drivers. Average net accumulation rate on all beaches was found 142. ±. 115. N/100. m/15. d. By applying a Generalized Linear Model (GzLM) it was shown that sea transport is the dominant pathway affecting the amount and variability in beach litter loadings. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) on compositional data and indicator items discerned two more pathways of beach litter, i.e. in situ litter from beach goers and wind and/or runoff transport of litter from land. By comparing the PCA results to those from a simple item to source attribution, it is shown that regardless their source litter items arrive at beaches from various pathways. Our data provide baseline knowledge for designing monitoring strategies and for setting management targets.

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... After correction for the distance and excluding one beach (see "Methods"), this represents an average of 1197.6 ± 2978.0 items per survey (or per 100 m of beach), 526.9 ± 794.2 items if we exclude the plastic fragments of less than 2.5 cm. These results fall in the same order of magnitude as others studies carried out on Mediterranean Sea beaches 11,[29][30][31][32][33][34] . The vast majority of the items collected belong to the artificial polymer materials (94.2%; ...

... Three of them were carried out on islands with very low anthropogenic pressure compared to our study: on a remote Aleutian island 37 , a remote island of the Hawaiian archipelago 40 and a remote sub-Antarctic island 38 . In each case, the estimated ARs are up to 2-4 orders of magnitude lower than on the Mediterranean islands beaches, and up to 1-2 orders of magnitude lower if we consider beaches from the Mediterranean Sea 34 . For the study performed on a beach of eastern Australia 39 , the estimated ARs fall in the same range, highlighting the relationship between the number of items collected and the time elapsed since the last cleaning/monitoring. ...

... This seasonal variation mimics the average number of tourists welcomed in the participating islands for the T beach and the L beach (Fig. 3a). During each month of the high season, the items from the ST category represent on average 65.7% ± 2.8% (T beach ), 39.8% ± 17.9% (L beach ) and 35.5% ± 28.7% (R beach ) of the items accumulating on the beaches, falling in the same range reported by previous studies 29,34 ; and they increase respectively up to 79.2% ± 4.5%, 77.9% ± 9.4% and 58.8% ± 19.1% if the MePs and the MPs are considered. The ARs of the other category items remain quite stable over the year (Fig. 3a). ...

The Mediterranean Sea and its coastal systems are threatened by intense anthropogenic pressures including rapid accumulation of marine litter by diverse human activities. The region, which is the world's leading touristic destination, has to face a seasonal increase of waste generation due to the seasonal influx of visitors. The beaches, extremely crowded during the summer, are particularly vulnerable since they are proven to be concentrated accumulation zones and one of the main gateways of litter to enter the marine system. We found that the accumulation rates of marine litter on Mediterranean island beaches follow a seasonal pattern, increasing up to 4.7 times during the high season, representing a daily load of (40.6 ± 11.5) 106 items/day extrapolated to all the islands of the region. We developed an accumulation index to assess the dynamics of marine litter and support efficient mitigation strategies by local authorities. To limit marine litter production attributable to recreational activities, a series of pilot actions implemented during the high touristic season, demonstrated a substantial reduction (up to 52.5%). The implementation towards an efficient and sustainable tourism business model is urgently required.

... Different methodologies have been applied, e.g. daily collections of marine litter (Eriksson et al., 2013;Chitaka and von Blottnitz, 2019), beach litter monitoring using webcams (Kako et al., 2010), periodical litter assessments (Prevenios et al., 2018) and litter mark-recapture/ tagging (Williams and Tudor, 2001). Among these methods, litter tagging provides accurate information on the litter dynamics by periodical quantification of the inputs (Garrity and Levings, 1993;Bowman et al., 1998;Williams and Tudor, 2001;Kataoka et al., 2013). ...

... Accumulation rates recorded within this study were lower than reported in Corfu Island (Ionian Sea, Central Mediterranean), Cape Town (South Africa), and Cousine Island (Seychelles, Prevenios et al., 2018;Chitaka and von Blottnitz, 2019;Dunlop et al., 2020) and were, together with litter patterns, clearly influenced by both anthropogenic and environmental factors. ...

Despite the large research effort on reporting quantities of coastal litter, the dynamics of this litter is not yet sufficiently understood. Litter inputs in five cobble beaches located in the Mediterranean (Spain) were studied over three months during winter by biweekly litter tagging. Plastic represented the dominant material that reached the beaches (77%). In remote and narrow beaches, storms constituted the main driver in litter dynamics, favouring the accumulation of floating items such as plastic bottles and wood fragments as well as the largest but contrasting effects, increasing litter inputs and outputs from the beach, respectively. In rural beaches, beach users, mainly fisher people, but also tourists, contributed to a notable input of litter to the beach. Burial and exhumation of litter were reported as common occurring processes. Better management actions are required to improve beach environmental quality.

... In terms of the number of items collected, plastic and polystyrene constituted 96% of all items collected. The proportional contribution of plastic to marine litter found on the beaches of Northern Cyprus is the highest reported to date in the Mediterranean, although other beaches in the region have reported similar levels of >90% (Battisti et al., 2019;Pasternak et al., 2017;Poeta et al., 2016;Prevenios et al., 2018;Vlachogianni et al., 2018), and between 80 and 90% (Asensio-Montesinos et al., 2019;Aydın et al., 2016;Giovacchini et al., 2018;Munari et al., 2016;Terzi and Seyhan, 2017). The pervasiveness of plastics in coastal locations is related to the characteristics which has led their multipurpose and widespread use, in simple terms they are light, often buoyant, and extremely durable. ...

... These items were also found to be the most numerous items along the Moroccan and Black Sea coastline (Maziane et al., 2018;Topçu et al., 2013). The universal nature of these items in our society and the poor levels of recycling and waste management throughout the region, together with their durability it is of no surprise that they have become ubiquitous and abundant along the Mediterranean shoreline (Maziane et al., 2018;Prevenios et al., 2018;Vlachogianni et al., 2018). ...

The eastern Mediterranean is a region that has been relatively understudied with regards to anthropogenic marine litter despite potential for environmental and social costs. Here, coastal marine litter accumulation was assessed at eight beach locations along the coast of Northern Cyprus. Monthly surveys were performed between January 2017 and January 2019. All items ≥ 2.5 cm in diameter within the same 250 m² plot were collected and processed. A total of 59,556 separate items were collected with a total mass of 697 kg. At the worst affected site (Ronnas Bay) litter accumulation averaged 1114 items and 11.9 kg per month. Plastic and polystyrene litter accounted for 82% (622.71 kg) of all litter types by mass and 96% (57,231) by frequency. Plastic bags, plastic pieces, drinks containers, caps/lids were the four most abundant forms of plastic by mass and by frequency. This suggests dumping/poor domestic waste governance as the main driver of marine litter in the region.

... The presence of marine debris has been registered in all marine compartments, stranded on shorelines (Debrot et al., 2013;Munari et al., 2016;Williams et al., 2016;Martin et al., 2018;Asensio-Montesinos et al., 2019;Aytan et al., 2019), floating on water surface (Law et al., 2010;Ryan, 2014;Cózar et al., 2017;Topouzelis et al., 2019;Constantino et al., 2019;Palatinus et al., 2019) and submerged on the seabed (Galgani et al.,1996;Stefatos et al., 1999;Ioakeimidis et al., 2014;Strafella et al., 2015Strafella et al., , 2019Maes et al., 2018;Palatinus et al., 2019). Litter generated by diverse human activities on land or at sea, and due to improper management, can drift by diverse drivers (water runoffs, wind, wave, sewages) towards coastal and pelagic zones (Galgani et al., 2015;Duckett and Repaci, 2015;Critchell et al., 2015;UNEP, 2016;Prevenios et al., 2018). The introduction and accumulation of beach litter (BL) to the marine environment entails a series of adverse effects on the function and sustainability of marine ecosystems (Laist, 1987;Katsanevakis et al., 2007;Kühn et al., 2015;Deudero and Alomar, 2015;Beaumont et al., 2019;Mazarrasa et al., 2019), as well as has serious socio-economic implications (Beaumont et al., 2019). ...

... The overall temporal variation of BL accumulation rates exhibits a seasonal pattern, with higher values in winter (Nov-Jan 2018, Feb-Apr, 2018) than in summer (Aug-Oct 2017, May-Jul 2018). This is most likely linked to the wind-and-wave conditions during winter, depositing greater amounts of floating litter on the beaches (Prevenios et al., 2018). Greater accumulation rates during winter have been previously reported by Walker et al., 1997. ...

The abundance of marine debris was quantified for a total of sixty-two inaccessible beaches in the westernSaronikos Gulf, Greece. High resolution images were obtained through vessel-based photography survey, mergedinto seamless photomosaics, and manually processed to quantify beach litter abundance. A sample of four selected beaches were subjected to detailed photography followed by beach macro-litter (≥2.5 cm)in-situsam-pling surveys over a period of one year, to calibrate and validate the proposed method. Regression analysisbetween photographic andin-situdata showed a significant correlation, hence providing a highly accurate re-gression model to assess the real number of beach litter stranded on the rest of the investigated beaches, ex-hibiting clear correlations to the hydrodynamic status of the area and, provide an indication of the main littersources. The proposed method is an easily applicable and useful tool for fast and low-cost macro-litter mon-itoring in extended, remote coastlines, when only photographic data are available.

... Although no actions are possible to improve natural parameters such as water color and clarity at a regional scale [24], it is sometime possible at a local scale: water quality is in fact also linked to human factors related to the presence of floating litter, which is linked to beachgoers activities, wastewater discharges, and marine-based sources [62,63]. Indeed, the impact of floating litter is increasingly reported worldwide [64,65], and litter has negative effects on beach tourism by reducing local tourism incomes [63]. ...

Sea, Sun, and Sand (3S) are relevant and determining elements for choosing a tourist destination in Ecuador, a country with about 1200 km of coast along the Pacific Ocean. This study analyzed the market potential of the 3S in 64 beaches, 10 located in the Galapagos and 54 in the continental zone (of Ecuador). The methodology used was exploratory and bibliographical, complemented by a descriptive analysis. The color of the water was assessed by direct observation, sand samples were taken to a laboratory for color analysis, and information on the hours of light was obtained from international archive data. The data obtained were compared with other world famous 3S tourism destinations. The Galapagos had the best results, with attractive white sand beaches, sea blue water color, and an elevated sunshine time; meanwhile, the continental zone presented poor beaches with dark sand and unattractive water color. To strengthen 3S tourism, managers should work on the enhancement of complementary aspects such as culture, gastronomy, and architecture, promoting the creation of new coastal tourist routes and destinations.

... Topographical features such as exposure, substrate type, vegetation and riverine outputs as well as meteorological events are examples of explanatory environmental factors which may influence the debris profile of a beach. The relative exposure index (REI) of a site is a proxy for the level of wind and wave exposure and the distance of fetch which frequently correlates with the level of beached debris observed (Pham et al., 2020;Prevenios et al., 2018). Windward littoral sites ten to accumulate more debris than leeward sites in island or headland environments (Andrades et al., 2018). ...

... Links between the relative exposure (REI scale) of a site or the distance of the fetch and they type of litter found on a beach have been established (Eriksson et al., 2013;Ryan et al., 2009) but the relationship is not necessarily straightforward. The topography of a site may mean that a site with a lower REI score, subject to a shorter fetch, is still more energetic, for example if it is exposed to winds at right angles (Prevenios et al., 2018). Again, this demonstrates that no single variable can completely explain the debris profile of a given site. ...

Around the coastline of the UK, macro-debris has been observed in average densities of over 700 items per metre. Systematic beach-cleans were conducted at 35 sites around the Scottish Orkney Islands, in order to quantify and categorise the level of marine debris found there. Litter was collected from 100 m transects and categorised by its material, broad source (terrestrial or marine) and potential sector source. Variation between sites, and the relative contribution of pre-determined environmental variables in influencing said variation, were analysed using the "capscale" function for a canonical analysis of principle coordinates (CAP). 513 items/m were observed, (77% plastic), with "String/cord (<1cm diameter)" being the most abundant and widely distributed litter type. 47% of macro-debris was attributed to the fishing sector and < 10% to leisure, living and tourism-associated activities. Conversely, the unique regional hydrodynamics must be examined further, before the source of any given item can be categorically assigned.

... This shows that the available data clearly predominate in the northern hemisphere, whereas there are hardly any data in the southern hemisphere. Figure 5. Concentrations of MaP on shorelines differentiates between the northern and southern hemisphere (data based on [115,122,144,149,[151][152][153][154][155][156][157][158][159][160][161][162][163]). ...

... Concentrations of MaP on shorelines differentiates between the northern and southern hemisphere (data based on [115,122,144,149,[151][152][153][154][155][156][157][158][159][160][161][162][163]). ...

With the focus on microplastic in current research, macroplastic is often not further considered. Thus, this review paper is the first to analyse the entry paths, accumulation zones, and sinks of macroplastic in the aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environment by presenting transport paths and concentrations in the environment as well as related risks. This is done by applying the Source-Pathway-Receptor model on macroplastic in the environment. Based on this model, the life cycle of macroplastic is structurally described, and knowledge gaps are identified. Hence, current research aspects on macroplastic as well as a sound delimitation between macro-and microplastic that can be applied to future research are indicated. The results can be used as basic information for further research and show a qualitative assessment of the impact of macroplastic that ends up in the environment and accumulates there. Furthermore, the applied model allows for the first time a quantitative and structured approach to macroplastic in the environment.

... For that reason, the deseasonalized curves obtained were very similar to the original ML values, implying that ML monthly variability should be associated with other external factors. Such findings are not unexpected, since litter is a dynamic variable that can change in time and space, derives from multiple driving mechanisms, depends on input sources, and has a rather complex chemical composition (Critchell and Lambrechts, 2016;Prevenios et al., 2017;Turrell, 2018). ...

... driving mechanisms, sources, or material type), trigger ML occurrence at particular periods in time. In order to understand what potential processes are driving litter loading patterns, complementary methods that correlate ML with oceanographic and statistical models need to be considered (Prevenios et al., 2017;Maximenko et al., 2019;Onink et al., 2019). ...

Marine litter (ML) consists of any item of anthropogenic origin that has been lost, discarded or intentionally dis- posed of into the environment, being acknowledged as a worldwide environmental and ecological threat. In the last decade, there has been an attempt across different sectors to tackle, reduce and mitigate sources of litter. In this study, meso and macrodebris between 2 and 30 cm was recorded and classified in two established study areas (Porto Pim and Conceição beaches), throughout five monitoring years (2012–2018). The litter abundance, density and weighted average by abundance were evaluated in eight main categories: plastics, cloths/fabrics, glass, metals, rubber, processed lumber, other and large. Field surveys provided evidence that plastic represented 95% of all litter. ML abundance was treated as an "environmental variable" and used to determine its anomalies, tempo- ral trends and forecasts. Results from this time-series addressed possible periodic oscillations and density peaks of litter. Reference values of ML presence were obtained and could potentially be used for developing a diagnostic tool for anthropogenic pollution in the Azores.

... The population of all coastal areas (Limassol, Larnaca, Paphos, Famagusta) increases significantly during the summer period, due to domestic and international tourism, thus multiplying the local anthropogenic emissions. In addition, coastal cities are exposed to sea salt emissions (PM 2.5 ) due to the winds, although this does not impact human health [15,26,[28][29][30][31]. In all cities of Cyprus, the average annual marginal values and the 35 daily exceedances are commonly exceeded. ...

... Seasonal variability is observed with higher concentrations of PM 10 and PM 2.5 during the summer period compared to the winter period up to 50 per cent. This behaviour can be explained by the increased photochemical conditions during summer, leading to secondary aerosol formation and the absence of sedimentation, which increases the lifetime of the particles, the annual winds, the existence of large fires and the local resuscitation of dust caused by arid climates and erosion of locally arable land [15,26,[28][29][30]. A large difference in the particle concentrations of 10 µm in relation to 2.5 µm is due to the strong background of the predominant example of PM 10 versus PM 2.5 [65]. ...

The air quality of modern cities is considered an important factor for the quality of life of humans and therefore is being safeguarded by various international organizations, concentrating on the mass concentration of particulate matter (PM) with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10, 2.5 and 1 μm. However, the different physical and anthropogenic processes and activities within the city contribute to the rise of fine (<1 μm) and coarse (>1 μm) particles, directly impacting human health and the environment. In order to monitor certain natural and anthropogenic events, suspecting their significant contribution to PM concentrations, seven different events taking place on the coastal front of the city of Limassol (Cyprus) were on-site monitored using a portable PM instrument; these included both natural (e.g., dust event) and anthropogenic (e.g., cement factory, meat festival, tall building construction, tire factory, traffic jam, dust road) emissions taking place in spring and summer periods. The violations of the limits that were noticed were attributed mainly to the various anthropogenic activities taking place on-site, revealing once more the need for further research and continuous monitoring of air quality.

... Its numerous islands attract each year thousands of tourists and maritime activity, posing a potential threat for the marine environment. Scientific surveys, carried out in several sites of EIS, have documented the presence of marine debris on the sea floor and beaches (Stefatos et al., 1999;Koutsodendris et al., 2008;Prevenios et al., 2017;Vlachogianni et al., 2018), on the upper surface waters (Ruiz-Orejón et al., 2016;Arcangeli et al., 2018), and the diet of several fish species (Anastasopoulou et al., 2013;Torre et al., 2016;Anastasopoulou et al., 2018;Digka et al., 2018) and cetaceans (Alexiadou et al., 2019). Our knowledge, however, about the impact of sources and circulation on the transport, residence time and concentration of floating litter in the EIS remains limited, since this area has been studied only within large scale drift models, which covered the entire Mediterranean Sea (Mansui et al., 2015;Zambianchi et al., 2017;Liubartseva et al., 2018). ...

... These values were in general agreement with other studies in the central Mediterranean Sea. Prevenios et al. (2017) monitored beach stranded litter in four selected beaches of Corfu Island and reported that the residence time, before litter being washed offshore from the beaches, ranged from 20 to 50 days. Similarly, in the Adriatic Sea, the half-life time of particles, defined as a measure of dissipativity of the basin, has been found approximately 40 days by both drifting experiments and numerical modeling (Poulain and Hariri, 2013;Liubartseva et al., 2016). ...

A Lagrangian particle tracking model coupled to a circulation was used to explore the transport, residence timeand connectivity offloating litter that originated from theΕastern Ionian Sea during 2011–2014. At the end ofsimulations, on average 26% of litter was retained within the coastal waters of the Eastern Ionian Sea, whereas58% was washed into offshore waters without formulating permanent accumulation areas, as the basin-widesurface circulation was characterized by considerable interannual variability. The inflow of litter into theAdriatic and Eastern Mediterranean Seas was moderate, ranging between 9% and 20%, and the beached litterwas on average 9.2%, mostly located in the northern subregions. The average residence time of litter particlesranged between 20 and 80 days, implying their temporary retention before drifting offshore. Connectivitypatterns depicted an exchange of litter mainly between adjacent subareas and with a northward direction.

... Our study clearly showed that the amount of debris is directly related to the number of beach visitors. A similar trend was observed by Ariza et al. (2008b) and Williams et al. (2016) in Spain and by Prevenios et al. (2018) on the island of Corfu and in the Ionian Sea. The differences in abundance between the five beaches are not only due to human activity. ...

Morocco is well known for its attractive Mediterranean beaches, which play an important economic role. With the fast development and growth, these beaches have become more contaminated by marine debris. This paper examined the abundance, composition and marine debris sources on five beaches in the Moroccan Mediterranean during 2019 four seasons. A total of 7839 marine debris were collected from the five beaches with a total weight of 231 kg. The average density of the debris collected was 0.20 ± 0.098 items/m². Polymer materials constituted the majority of debris found, with a percentage of 71.36%, followed by paper/cardboard (11.50%), metal (5.77%), processed wood (5.34%), cloth/textile (2.51%) and glass/ceramics (1.76%). Human recreational activities were the main source of debris (70.13%), followed by smoking-related (13.98%). Debris density appears to be particularly influenced by beach users. Awareness campaigns are needed for beach users to improve the quality of the beaches.

... In the past 10 years (2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016)(2017)(2018)(2019) six beach macrolitter studies have been published in peer-reviewed journals. Laglbauer et al. (2014) investigated the occurrence of macrolitter on 6 beaches located at the Slovenian coastline; Munari et al. (2016) surveyed 5 beaches located at the north-western Adriatic coast of Italy; � Silc et al., (2018) sampled beach macrolitter along various sand dune habitats in Montenegro in the vicinity of the Bojana/Buna river; Prevenios et al., (2018) focused on enhancing the understanding of beach macrolitter dynamics on 4 beaches located in the island of Corfu (Greece); and Vlachogianni et al. (2019) reported beach macrolitter amounts and sources for 3 beached located at the Croatian coastline. To-date, the most extensive study on macroscopic litter items deposited on the coastline of all 7 countries (Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, Slovenia) of the Adriatic and Ionian macroregion has been performed by Vlachogianni et al. (2018), that provided baseline information for 31 beaches that were investigated through one-year long surveys. ...

Beach litter surveys represent a fundamental tool for monitoring marine litter pollution in the marine environment and have been used worldwide to quantify the amounts of litter deposited on the coastline and detect its sources. This study investigated the abundance, composition and sources of marine litter stranded on five beaches located at the bay of Durres and the Bay of Lalzi in Albania. During April 2018, a total of 3,321 marine litter items were collected, classified and recorded. Within this study the mean litter density was found to be 0.14 items/m2 and 333 items/100m stretch of beach. The sites investigated differed in terms of human-induced pressures with 2 sites being classified as semi-urban; 2 sites as urban and 1 as semi-rural. Artificial/anthropogenic polymer materials accounted for the majority of marine litter items found, with a percentage of 65%. The most abundant type of items was glass and ceramic fragments accounting for 19.7%, followed by cigarette butts and filters accounting for 17.9% of all litter collected. The vast majority of litter items (58.5%) originated from shoreline sources including poor waste management practices, tourism and recreational activities. Single-use plastics (SUPs) accounted for 48% of all items recorded ranging from 16.8% to 69.1% for the different beaches.

... Its semi-enclosed nature favors litter recirculation and limits its further transfer to other ocean areas. As a consequence, the Mediterranean Sea is highly exposed to marine litter pollution (Galgani et al., 1995(Galgani et al., , 1996Cózar et al., 2015;Deudero and Alomar, 2015;Tubau et al., 2015;Fossi et al., 2018;Prevenios et al., 2018) and MP concentrations at the sea surface are comparable to those found in accumulation zones of the large ocean gyres (Cózar et al., 2015). ...

... In fact, coastline is close to land-based sources of pollution, such as ports and cities, and is contaminated by beachgoers and fishermen and intercepted by marine litter coming from the sea and stranded by wind, tide and waves. For all these reasons, marine litter is present in high quantities on coastlines (Edyvane et al., 2004;Galgani et al., 2015;Munari et al., 2016;Ríos et al., 2018;Valavanidis and Vlachogianni, 2012;Williams et al., 2016b), and monitoring programmes have been implemented to map, spatially and temporally, the load and type of marine litter on beaches worldwide (Eriksson et al., 2013;Frias et al., 2013;Gago et al., 2014;Hong et al., 2014;Kusui and Noda, 2003;Lucas, 1992;Nelms et al., 2017;Oigman-Pszczol and Creed, 2007;Prevenios et al., 2018;Rosevelt et al., 2013;Schulz et al., 2017Schulz et al., , 2015Silva-Iñiguez and Fischer, 2003;Topçu et al., 2013;Williams et al., 2016a;Zhou et al., 2011). ...

Recent works have shown the feasibility of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) for monitoring marine pollution. We provide a comparison among techniques to detect and map marine litter objects on an UAS-derived orthophoto of a sandy beach-dune system. Manual image screening technique allowed a detailed description of marine litter categories. Random forest classifier returned the best-automated detection rate (F-score 70%), while convolutional neural network performed slightly worse (F-score 60%) due to a higher number of false positive detections. We show that automatic methods allow faster and more frequent surveys, while still providing a reliable density map of the marine litter load. Image manual screening should be preferred when the characterization of marine litter type and material is required. Our analysis suggests that the use of UAS-derived orthophoto is appropriate to obtain a detailed geolocation of marine litter items, requires much less human effort and allows a wider area coverage.

... While substrate was uniform in the present study, for the German Bight, spatial and temporal heterogeneity in atmospheric forcing was discussed as major factor determining the stranding of floating litter by Neumann et al. (2014). Wind drift had significant influence on the observed spatial heterogeneity in replicate beach litter abundances, as it was also resumed by Kataoka et al. (2013) for beaches in Japan and by Prevenios et al. (2018) for Mediterranean beaches. In addition, this is in line with results of Williams et al. (2017) who discuss that winter storms increase the beaching of litter. ...

Replicate surveys of beach litter have seldom been performed in the past. In this study, replicate surveys of beach litter were conducted on the beach north of Hörnum (Sylt, Germany), from 2015 to 2019, applying a slightly modified OSPAR protocol of beach litter monitoring. Descriptive statistics and power analyses were calculated on data resulting from these replicate surveys, to find out whether the scatter of replicate beach litter data decreases and the statistical power increases with increasing numbers of replicate surveys. From 2015 to 2019, mean total abundances, given as numbers of litter items, ranged from 19 to 185 litter items on a 50 m section of beach. With increasing numbers of replicate surveys, the scatter given by the coefficient of variation (CV) significantly increased up to 113%. Statistical power considerably increased with increasing numbers of replicate beach sections, e.g. from 82% (two beach sections) to nearly 100% (five beach sections) for a given reduction of beach litter of 50%. Based on these results from a morphologically straight coastline, the use of replicate surveys would be sensible for the future monitoring of beach litter. However, there is high need for studies, which consider coastlines with varying morphology.

... Here, we defined litter as a material with anthropogenic origin washed ashore from the sea as well as litter from human activities from the beach, sea-based and land-based sources; we considered only meso (5-25 mm) and macro litter (>25 mm) (Hartmann et al. 2019). Litter pollution is a common problem at sandy beaches, ranging from 0.09 items m −2 to 0.61 items m −1 and 0.91 items m −2 in the Mediterranean mainly composing of plastics (Silc et al. 2018;Asensio-Montesinos et al. 2020;Prevenios et al. 2018) while showing a mean value of 47 to 222 items 100 m −1 in the Baltic . For decades, marine litter has been a prevailing and ubiquitous topic within political agendas. ...

As accumulation zones, sandy beaches are temporal sinks for beach wrack and litter, both often seen as nuisances to tourists. Consequently, there is a need for beach management and an enhanced political interest to evaluate their ecosystem services. We applied a new online multidisciplinary assessment approach differentiating between the provision, potential, and flow at German and Lithuanian beaches (Southern Baltic Sea). We selected a set of services and assessed four beach scenarios developed accordingly to common management measures (different beach wrack and litter accumulations). We conducted comparative assessments involving 39 external experts using spread-sheets and workshops, an online survey as well as a combined data-based approach. Results indicated the relative importance of cultural (52.2%), regulating and maintenance (37.4%), and provisioning services (10.4%). Assessed impact scores showed that the removal of beach wrack is not favorable with regard to the overall ecosystem service provision. Contrarily, the removal of litter can increase the service flow significantly. When removing beach wrack, synergies between services should be used, i.e., use of biomass as material or further processing. However, trade-offs prevail between cultural services and the overall provision of beach ecosystem services (i.e., coastal protection and biodiversity). We recommend developing new and innovative beach cleaning techniques and procedures, i.e., different spatio-temporal patterns, e.g., mechanical vs. manually, daily vs. on-demand, whole beach width vs. patches. Our fast and easy-to-apply assessment approach can support decision-making processes within sustainable coastal management allowing us to show and compare the impacts of measures from a holistic ecosystem services perspective.

... An increasing number of scientific publications evidence the issue [1,2]. Several studies aim to tackle the problem with information derived from observers on a cruise [3], the use of modeling [4][5][6][7][8][9], and remote sensing [10][11][12]. The need for an integrated marine debris observing system was presented by Maximenko et al. [13], while directions on the detection requirements are given by international groups and agencies [13][14][15][16][17][18]. ...

Remote sensing is a promising tool for the detection of floating marine plastics offering extensive area coverage and frequent observations. While floating plastics are reported in high concentrations in many places around the globe, no referencing dataset exists either for understanding the spectral behavior of floating plastics in a real environment, or for calibrating remote sensing algorithms and validating their results. To tackle this problem, we initiated the Plastic Litter Projects (PLPs), where large artificial plastic targets were constructed and deployed on the sea surface. The first such experiment was realised in the summer of 2018 (PLP2018) with three large targets of 10×10 m. Hereafter, we present the second Plastic Litter Project (PLP2019), where smaller 5×5 m targets were constructed to better simulate near-real conditions and examine the limitations of the detection with Sentinel-2 images. The smaller targets and the multiple acquisition dates allowed for several observations, with the targets being connected in a modular way to create different configurations of various sizes, material composition and coverage. A spectral signature for the PET (polyethylene terephthalate) targets was produced through modifying the U.S. Geological Survey PET signature using an inverse spectral unmixing calculation, and the resulting signature was used to perform a matched filtering processing on the Sentinel-2 images. The results provide evidence that under suitable conditions, pixels with a PET abundance fraction of at least as low as 25% can be successfully detected, while pinpointing several factors that significantly impact the detection capabilities. To the best of our knowledge, the 2018 and 2019 Plastic Litter Projects are to date the only large-scale field experiments on the remote detection of floating marine litter in a near-real environment and can be used as a reference for more extensive validation/calibration campaigns.

... The comparatively healthier condition found in the meadow of Acharavi is consistent with the low level of coastal pressures (Malltezi et al., 2010;Prevenios et al., 2017). The higher values of all the three metrics found in Saleccia, another area little impacted by coastal urbanization, were likely due to natural factors, such as the input by the adjacent Liscu River and the presence of strong rip currents (Bonacorsi et al., 2013). ...

Marine coastal ecosystems are facing structural and functional changes due to the increasing human footprint worldwide, and the assessment of their long-term changes becomes particularly challenging. Measures of change can be done by comparing the observed ecosystem status to a purposely defined reference condition. In this paper, a geospatial modelling approach based on 2D mapping and morphodynamic data was used to predict the natural position of the upper limit (i.e., the landward continuous front) of Posidonia oceanica seagrass meadows settled on soft bottom. This predictive model, formerly developed at the regional spatial scale, was here applied for the first time at the Mediterranean spatial scale in eight coastal areas of Spain, France, Italy, and Greece showing different coastal morphologies and hydrodynamic characteristics, and affected by a number of natural and/or human local disturbances. The model was effective in measuring the regression (i.e., seaward withdrawal) of the meadow upper limit. In all the meadows investigated the upper limit was regressed, laying deeper than the reference condition, with the proportion of regression ranging from 17.7% to 98.9%. The highest values of regression were found in Spain and in France, and were consistent with the highest levels of fragmentation detected with map analysis and of coastal pressures. This geospatial modelling approach represents an effective tool to define the reference conditions when proper pristine areas or historical data are not available, thus allowing the assessment of long-time changes experienced by seagrass ecosystems due to human impacts.

... The wet zone was defined by the edge of water up to the recent highest watermark and line, whereas the dry section was defined by the recent highest watermark/ strand line up to the back of the beach. The back of the beach was defined as two meters into the vegetation (Abu-Hilal and Al-Najjar, 2004) or at the foot of built construction (Prevenios et al., 2018). ...

Macro-litter accumulation surveys were carried out in six beaches in Kilifi, Mombasa and Kwale Counties. Macro litter were collected, quantified and characterized to determine their composition, distribution and accumulation rates. The results showed that the accumulation rates ranged between 1.53 ± 1.23 and 11.46 ± 7.72 (for dry zones) and 2.69 ± 2.13 and 8.93 ± 7.87 items m⁻¹ day⁻¹ (for wet zones). Plastics and foam were the most abundant litter categories. Local products constituted about 88% of all the collected litter. Food packaging products constituted about 91.3% of all branded litter types. Marine litter pollution particularly by plastics was widespread in all studied coastal counties. However, a significant amount of litter encountered in the beaches was of local origin, thus a local solution to waste management (that will eliminate leakage into marine environments) will considerably reduce marine litter pollution in Kenya.

... Pada musim timur pantai akan bersih dengan sendirinya karena sampahnya dibawa oleh angin dan arus ke arah laut, hal ini khususnya terjadi di bagian selatan Pulau Timor dan sungai-sungai umumnya dalam keadaan kering akibat tidak ada hujan, sehingga tidak ada sampah yang dibawa ke arah laut melalui sungai. Pandangan masyarakat mengenai pergerakan sampah ini sesuai dengan kajian Prevenios et al. (2018), yaitu arus lautan dapat memindahkan sampah dari satu lokasi tersebar ke lokasi lainnya, sehingga jumlah sampah pada setiap lokasi bisa berubah tergantung perubahan musim yang dapat menyebabkan perubahan pada arah arus (Ribic et al., 2012). Apabila sampah sudah menumpuk, umumnya sampah dibakar di lubang-lubang pasir yang dibuat di sekitar pantai atau dibakar di tong sampah baik oleh petugas atau pengunjung. ...

Beach debris is an increasingly important issue to study considering its negative impact on the terrestrial and marine environment. This research aims to examine the distribution of beach debris in Timor Island as a basis for managing and overcoming waste pollution. The research was conducted in August 2020 on six government-managed tourism beaches consisting of one city (Kupang) and five regencies (Malaka, Timor Tengah Selatan, Kupang, Timor Tengah Utara, and Belu). At each location, a transect of 100 meters was made parallel to the shoreline with a transect width of 10 m perpendicular to the shoreline measured from the back of the beach. All trash in the transect was taken, then cleaned from the sand, then put in plastic bags that have been labeled. The wet litter was sun-dried before being counted. All waste was then sorted, then counted in the amount of item, weight, and length. The results showed that the entire beach had been exposed to unmanaged waste. Plastic waste dominates the entire site with a composition of numbers of items between 63 - 95% (average 80 ± 12%) and length between 60 - 93% (average 75 ± 13%). The composition of the weight of plastic waste is between 20 - 72% (average 45 ± 21%), where the weight of plastic waste does not dominate at Motadikin Beach. The dynamics of ocean currents in the eastern monsoon are thought to have played a role in causing lower debris quantification at the Motadikin Beach (Malaka Regency) and Oetune Beach (Timor Tengah Selatan Regency) than to the other four beaches located in the north of Timor Island. The source of beach debris comes from recreational activities, fishing and anchoring activities, and anthropogenic waste carried away from the sea.

... A very similar opportunity is presented in the field of beach-litter assessment. The proportion of marine litter that can be attributed specifically to beach users has been very difficult to estimate as there are many possible litter sources [120]. There is a considerable amount of data regarding litter on extensively used tourist beaches collected during the summer high season that cannot easily be compared with data collected in the low season when environmental conditions are very different [121]. ...

The strict quarantine measures employed as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic have led the global tourism industry to a complete halt, disrupting the livelihoods of millions. The economic importance of beach tourism for many destinations has led many governments to reopen tourist beaches, as soon as the number of infection cases decreased. The objective of this paper is to provide a scientific basis for understanding the key issues for beach tourism management in these circumstances. These issues include risk perception, environmental considerations directly related to beaches and COVID-19, and management strategies designed to limit the risk of contagion on the beach. The contribution of this paper lies in its interdisciplinary approach to delivering the findings from the latest studies, highly relevant for beach tourism, in psychology, health science, and environmental science (often in preprint and in press format). Particular attention was given to identifying the knowledge gaps evident in the areas of COVID-19 risk perception, with the drivers explaining the risk-taking behavior and the protective strategies employed by beachgoers. Gaps were also found in areas such as the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in bathing waters and the sand, the potential of contaminated sand being a viable route of transmission, and the impact of the use of chemical disinfectants on the marine environment and on bathers. The paper identifies research prospects in these areas, additionally pointing out other questions such as new carrying capacity methods, the opportunity given by COVID-19 in estimation of the impacts of visitation and beach-litter.

... Andrades et al. (2020) found that plastic was the most abundant material in 97.7% of 44 Brazilian beaches, representing 69.5% of all AL. Higher plastic occurrence, reaching 95% or more, have been measured in remote, urban and tourist coastal areas (Pieper et al., 2019;Poeta et al., 2016;Prevenios et al., 2018;Wilson and Verlis, 2017). ...

Anthropogenic litter (AL) distribution was assessed on beaches presenting different levels of urban occupation at Santos Estuarine System. Plastics and cigarette butts were the items most found at sampling sites. Plastic items sub-categories, such as cotton buds, lids, microcentrifuge tubes, pellets, and polystyrene foam, presented sources related to industrial, tourism and port activities, and sewage discharges. The contamination gradient already reported for hazardous chemical levels was also observed for AL. Litter categories related to local and allochthonous sources presented a gradient of spatial distribution. Although touristic activities are an impactful and variable factor, the number of inhabitants was positively correlated with most AL categories. The semi-urban beach (S1) was classified as extremely dirty, and it was mostly covered by hazardous AL. The semi-remote (S2) and remote (S3) beaches were classified as moderate and clean with some or few hazardous AL, respectively. Therefore, urban and hydrodynamic gradients drive marine litter distribution on studied zone.

... The comparison with the top ten items from Europe (Addamo et al., 2017) showed that many categories such as food packaging, plastic and polystyrene pieces, cigarette butts and metal cans are among the most frequent in both regions. Several differences were also highlighted, such as sanitary items, in particular cotton buds, that are also much more frequent in Europe where their presence has been linked to leakage from wastewater systems (Poeta et al., 2016;Prevenios et al., 2018). This could be the result of the absence in both Solomon Islands and Vanuatu of wastewater treatment plants and sewage systems, which would be the main leakage steps. ...

The increasing abundance of marine litter is impacting the environment, human health and economies in the South Pacific. Small Islands Developing States are particularly affected by marine litter, primarily due to insufficient waste management systems. For the first time, marine litter was quantified and characterised on 13 beaches in Solomon Islands and Vanuatu in the South Pacific region using the OSPAR beach litter monitoring guidelines. A total of 1053 (±1017) and 974 (±745) items of litter per 100 m beach were recorded in Solomon Islands and Vanuatu respectively. Litter composition and distribution show that the majority of the litter comes from local land-based sources and large quantities of fragments and single use plastics were found by cities and river mouths. Actions to reduce single use plastic, improve collection, reuse and recycling, together with outreach campaigns would reduce marine litter significantly in these countries. Furthermore, there is great potential to develop a more circular economy to manage the substantial quantities of recyclable items that were found stranded on the beaches.

... They are elements with a high resistance to degradation so they last several years in the environment, generating impacts, and after long residence times, plastic items can undergo fragmentation processes (Andrady, 2011). This debris is deposited heterogeneously on the beaches according to the characteristics of the materials (size, specific weight) and the type of weather-marine events that cause the stranding (Fanini and Bozzeda, 2018;Prevenios et al., 2018). Items of various sizes and shapes behave differently in the environment, potentially interacting with suspended sediments of different textures (Browne et al., 2010). ...

Eleonora Cresta
Corrado Battisti

We investigated the accumulation of litter along a transition gradient from the dunal beaches (B), to the backdunes (BD), to the channels of a coastal wetland (W), considering both the total litter and a sub-category represented by expanded polystyrene (EPS). Using a removal sampling technique carried out in spring (April and May), we hypothesized that: (i) the total accumulation of litter decreases progressively from the dunes to the backdunes to wet environments while (ii) the lighter polystyrene concentrates in the BD-W fringe where the Phragmites australis reedbeds can have a sink role for this polymer. The total litter density showed a significant decrease along the gradient B-BD-W in both months, with an evident collapse between BD and W. Analogously, EPS showed a significant difference in density along the B-BD-W gradient in both months, although with a different pattern: a maximum in the BD and a significant collapse between BD and W. The presence of backdune hygrophilous vegetation (Phragmites australis' reedbeds) may act as a sink trapping all types of litter in both cases (total litter and EPS). The different accumulation pattern between total litter and the EPS is due to the lower specific weight of the latter polymer: while the generic litter tends to decrease quantitatively moving away from the sea, the lighter EPS is removed by the winds and pushed towards the land, beyond the dune, where it is trapped by the vegetation, thus showing a peak in density in the backdunes. No significant differences were observed between the litter density in the two months (before and after the removal) either considering the total litter and only EPS. This may suggest a continuous supply of litter from the sea, highlighting how clean-ups actions should be carried out with a higher frequency rather than monthly. This may be even more valid in the period of greater frequency of intense weather-marine events (autumn-winter) when a greater quantity of litter is deposited. These are the first data for the Mediterranean regarding a specific role of wetland hygrophilous vegetation as a sink for anthropogenic litter, mainly expanded polystyrene.

... Especially since constant change is a characteristic of the coastal zone (Rangel-Buitrago et al., 2019), and since previous evidence has demonstrated the influence of variables such as wind, tide and discrete weather events (e.g. storms), on small-scale (< 1 month) temporal variation in litter abundance and transportation (Cheung et al., 2018;Eriksson et al., 2013;Kako et al., 2010;Prevenios et al., 2018;Ryan and Perold, 2021;Smith and Markic, 2013). Further, such smallscale temporal variation can overshadow seasonal patterns (Vermeiren et al., 2016), creating an additional source of uncertainty in decision making. ...

The influence of short-term (daily) variation in environmental conditions (rainfall, wind, tide, river flow) on debris accumulation was examined on two beaches at an estuarine outlet. Sampling occurred over 60 consecutive days along two sections (Internal Area, IA; and External Area, EA) of the Paranaguá Estuary Complex's southern outlet, in Paraná, southern Brazil. The IA is sheltered from direct wave action, whereas the EA is more exposed to wave and wind action from the open ocean. The IA accounted for 71% of the total debris, while the EA accounted for 29%. Debris abundance was highest after intermediate bouts of rainfall, although river flow only affected debris accumulation in the IA. Wind and tide influenced accumulation differently across sites. These results highlight the importance of short-term variation in the accumulation of marine debris on sandy beaches, which should be considered when designing and monitoring assessment programs and removal strategies.

... The possibility to map, at the same time and with the same approach and tools, pollution status (e.g., from data on anthropogenic litter or on chemical contaminants) and sources of pollution (i.e., distribution of human activities possibly responsible for pollutant release such as maritime traffic, touristic activities) may greatly support identification of the main hazards for marine ecosystem status and may support correct management procedures Prevenios et al., 2018). Furthermore, integrating data products of marine pollution with products on the spatial and/or temporal distribution of human activities together with spatial information on meteo-oceanographic conditions (e.g., winds, ocean currents) can greatly assist to identify sources, predict the fate of discharge and pathways of anthropogenic impacts, and to design better pollution prevention measures (Sepp Neves et al., 2016, 2020. ...

The needs of society and the emerging blue economy require access and integration of data and information for the construction of dedicated products. A "transparent and accessible ocean" is one of the key objectives of the Ocean Decade 2021–30. In this context, marine infrastructures become significant components of a global knowledge environment, enabling environmental assessment and providing the necessary data for scientifically valid actions to protect and restore ocean health, to use marine resources in a sustainable way. The data is collected, analyzed, organized, and used by people and their good use/reuse can be obtained with social practices, technological and physical agreements aimed at facilitating collaborative knowledge, decision-making, inference. The vision is a digital ocean data ecosystem made up of multiple, interoperable, and scalable components. The huge amount of data and the resulting products can drive the development of new knowledge as well as new applications and services. Predictive capabilities that derive from the digital ecosystem enable the implementation of services for real-time decision-making, multihazard warning systems, and advance marine space planning. The chapter develops following the progressive complexity and information content of products deriving from oceanic data: data cycle and data collections, data products, oceanic reanalysis. The chapter discusses the new challenges of data products and the complexity of deriving them.

... In the Mediterranean Sea, the increased coastal population and tourism are considered the major causes of the high amounts of litter recorded [27,28]. Prevenios et al. [29] showed that regardless of the source of litter items, the natural drivers affect both the amount and composition of litter found on Mediterranean beaches, while the amount of litter deposited is clearly affected by the net effect of the windwave regime in combination with the orientation of the beach. ...

Marine pollution affects the changes in the physical and chemical characteristics of the sea and the ocean, biological communities, and the overall health of the marine ecosystem. Measures to control pollution, prevention, and improvement of conditions are essential to preserve the state of the sea and they represent one of the greatest challenges of the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). This paper presents results of the monitoring activities of two beaches on Montenegrin coast conducted during three seasons (autumn 2018, winter 2018, and spring 2019). Obtained results indicate a fairly high level of beaches pollution by solid waste during all investigated seasons. Average abundance of marine litter was estimated to be 0.35 items/m² and 0.85 items/m² on Jaz and Blatna beach, respectively. According to Clean Coastal Index (CCI) Jaz beach belongs to moderately clean beaches (average CCI = 7), while Blatna beach belongs to dirty beaches (average CCI = 17.14). The largest percentage share of marine litter belongs to artificial polymer materials (APM) on both beaches with cumulative percentage of 90.6% and 79.11% of total litter on Jaz and Blatna beach, respectively. Comparative data with similar research in the Adriatic-Ionian region suggest there is a growing trend of the amount of marine litter on beaches.

... In a recent study, it has been calculated that total annual plastic input in the Mediterranean basin is equal to 100,000 tons, and of these 50% of the plastic litter generally originates from various land-based sources, while 30% of trash is from river channels and 20% is from maritime routing (Cincinelli et al., 2019). The vast coastal population (approximately 150-160 million residents), tourism activities (∼350 million tourists stays overnight per year), and managing this debris in unprotected landfills (without undergoing recycling) are generally considered as the root causes for the generation of marine litter in the Mediterranean Sea (Prevenios et al., 2018). The entry of plastic litter from different land-based sources is attributed to 21 nations located on three different continents and these sources are generally comprised of usual domestic, industrial, business, and touristic activities. ...

Microplastic pollution is one of the emerging threats across the globe and is becoming a topic of intense study for environmental researchers. At present, almost all of the world's oceans and seas are contaminated with microplastics but the Mediterranean Sea has been recognized as a target hotspot of the world as the microplastic concentration in this region is approximately four times greater than the North Pacific Ocean. Because of the distinguishing semi-enclosed morphology of the Mediterranean Sea, and different plastic waste generating activities originating from surrounding countries the Mediterranean Sea is highly vulnerable to microplastic pollution. Different plastic families have been reported in the Mediterranean Sea and the Physico-chemical features of these plastic polymers play an important role in the interactions between these plastic particles and other organic matter in the water bodies. The ingestion of microplastics by marine animals is an issue of concern as microplastic acts as vectors for other harmful pollutants adsorbed onto their surface. This review provides a detailed discussion on the persistence of microplastics in the Mediterranean Sea that have been identified in surface water and also in sediments and deep sea-floor. Various sources of these synthetic materials and the intensity of low and high-density polymers pollution in the Mediterranean Sea have also been discussed. This review also focuses on the threatened species in the Mediterranean Sea and the fate of the plastisphere community in its ecosystem. In the end, we highlight a series of important regulations and policies adopted by Mediterranean countries to control and manage the microplastic pollution in this region.

... Survey results showed that over 50% of total litter originates from tourism activities (for example, beachgoers littering directly on the coast), showing that land-based inputs are likely to be the key sources of marine anthropogenic litter in this region (Table 2). These results agree with those from previous analyses in other areas, though the proportions vary [34,35]. Moreover, results analysis has shown that litter originated from tourism activities, especially cigarette stubs, has an increased trend of 17 and 12 items per year, respectively, with no statistical significance (p > 0.05). ...

The accumulation of floating marine litter poses a serious threat to the global environment and the economy all over the world, particularly of coastal municipalities that rely on tourism and recreational activities. Data of marine litter is thus crucial, but is usually limited, and can be complemented with modelling results. In this study, the operational modelling system of Algarve (SOMA) was combined with a Lagrangian particle-tracking model and blended with scarce litter monitoring data, to provide first insights into the distribution and accumulation of floating marine litter on the Algarve coast. Different meteo-oceanographic conditions, sources regions and wind drift behaviors were considered. Field data and model results show a considerable concentration of marine litter along the beaches and coastal regions. The model also suggests that oceanographic conditions and wind drift have a great influence on the transport and accumulation rate of the floating marine litter on the coast, with the highest rates of accumulation during the winter and the counter current period, concentrated mostly on the south-western coast of the Algarve.

... Even though standing stock surveys are a one-off count assessment (Poeta et al., 2016) aimed at providing discrete surveillance of a continuous flux Brennan et al., 2018), they may reveal temporal variation in abundance, composition and distribution of beach litter if carried out repeatedly in a staggered fashion. They may also reveal the temporal dynamics of litter inputs and outputs and allow for tracking of such variations (Ryan et al., 2009;Prevenios et al., 2018). The study additionally determined the level of beach cleanliness by calculating the Clean Coast Index as proposed by Alkalay et al., 2007. ...

Maureen Kombo
Maurine Mokeira Kombo

Six marine litter standing stock surveys were carried out to determine the influence of monsoon on the temporal abundance and composition of macro-litter in Mkomani beach, Mombasa Kenya. Foam (0.073 items m− 2) and plastic (0.042 items m− 2) fragments had the highest densities. The brand audit indicated that 66.9% of branded marine litter was of Kenyan origin. Food product packaging contributed 78.4% of the branded litter with PET bottles being the most abundant type of packaging (48.2%). Foreign products contributed 35.6% of branded marine litter during South East Monsoon (SEM) whereas only 11.7% during North-East Monsoon (NEM). Worth noting, PET packaging dominated during SEM (53.6%) compared to NEM (20.2%). Mkomani beach could be considered "extremely dirty" with a Clean-Coast Index greater than 20. The study concludes that monsoons influences litter diversity, richness and evenness.

Six marine litter standing stock surveys were carried out to determine the influence of monsoon on the temporal abundance and composition of macro-litter in Mkomani beach, Mombasa Kenya. Foam (0.073 items m⁻²) and plastic (0.042 items m⁻²) fragments had the highest densities. The brand audit indicated that 66.9% of branded marine litter was of Kenyan origin. Food product packaging contributed 78.4% of the branded litter with PET bottles being the most abundant type of packaging (48.2%). Foreign products contributed 35.6% of branded marine litter during South East Monsoon (SEM) whereas only 11.7% during North-East Monsoon (NEM). Worth noting, PET packaging dominated during SEM (53.6%) compared to NEM (20.2%). Mkomani beach could be considered "extremely dirty" with a Clean-Coast Index greater than 20. The study concludes that monsoons influences litter diversity, richness and evenness.

... In recent years, volunteers have contributed to fill this gap conducting a lot of initiatives aimed at identifying and removing marine litter washed ashore or abandoned along the coasts. In addition, greater attention has been paid to the different types of materials that compose beach and seafloor marine litter and to its sources (Tudor et al., 2002;Koutsodendris et al., 2008;Munari et al., 2016;García-Rivera et al., 2017;Pasternak et al., 2017;Prevenios et al., 2018;Consoli et al., 2019;Pieper et al., 2019). Even if, relating the marine litter to an origin is often difficult and controversial, it is of paramount importance in the management of coastal areas. ...

A heterogeneous amount of waste of different origins is continuously generated along Italian coasts in the Mediterranean Sea. In this paper, using information regarding the quantities and the different types of marine litter based on Project AWARE's "Dive Against Debris" data, we try to identify the main sources of this waste. In particular, the methodological approach used associates the origin of marine litter sources with the dataset of geo-localised state-owned maritime concessions, which are loaded by the granting bodies (regions, municipalities, port authorities) on the State Property Information System (Sid). The sources of marine litter were evaluated using the matrix scoring technique (MST). Then, to assess the weight of each source in each station, the community-level weighted mean (CWM) was calculated. Single-use plastic accounted for the highest percentage (19.13%), followed by glass beverage bottles (10.90%), shopping bags (9.03%), aluminium beverage cans (4.91%), and cigarette butts (4.61%). Tourism and beach users contributed to 42.3% of the litter found, followed by fishing (15.7%) and yachting (11.3%). The overlapping of the data collected by scuba divers with the state concessions of activities from offshore and mainland areas was used to distinguish the anthropic pressures that impact the coast. Policy makers and the local administrator may use these results to define new methods of collection and reuse of anthropic waste through a more harmonised approach in the management of marine waste.

... Anthropogenic litter are ubiquitous pollutants found in the most remote areas such as the Polar Regions and the ocean floor (Bergmann et al., 2017). The primary pathway for litter to reach the oceans and seas is land, either through direct (waste discharge) or indirect (river input, beaches and disposal of litter from ships and offshore installations into the sea) means (Portman and Brennan, 2017;Prevenios et al., 2018). The transport of marine litter is dependent upon a variety of environmental factors such as climatic conditions, river input, coastal processes and geomorphological characteristics of beaches (Araujo and Costa, 2007;Carson et al., 2013;Williams et al., 2016Williams et al., , 2017. ...

Marine litter is widely distributed in marine environments and has been a severe concern worldwide, due to the disposal of waste from diverse sources. The severity of this threat has garnered increasing attention in India over the last decade, but the full consequences of this pollution are yet to be quantified. To estimate the spatiotemporal distribution, composition and beach quality of marine litter pollution, 17 beaches along the Hooghly estuary, a part of the Gangetic delta was studied. Marine litter was collected from 100 m long transects during two seasons (monsoon and post-monsoon). The OSPAR monitoring standard was applied to the 16,597 litter items collected, then grouped under 6 types and 44 categories. In terms of number, litter abundance was higher during monsoon (1.10 ± 0.39 items/m²) than that of post-monsoon (0.86 ± 0.32 items/m²). Most of the beaches were categorized as "dirty" cleanliness as computed by the general index and clean coast index and the "very low" class for the pellet pollution index. Hazardous litter constituted 6.5% of the total collected litter items. The model prediction revealed that the influence of high discharge from Hooghly, Rasulpur and Subarnarekha River carried enormous anthropogenic litter to the northeast beaches. The litter flux decreases with an increase in distance from the shore, and act as a sink to the sea-floor. The results denote that the distribution and typology of marine litter were representatives of household, tourism and fishing, which in turn highlights the need for better regional litter management measures. Suggested management practices include source reduction, mitigation, management of beach environment and change in littering behaviour through environmental education.

... This study provides the first assessment of beach litter pollution in Sardinia, demonstrating that this type of Based on the sorting analysis, we identified the main source of each category (deposed or washed ashore items, the latter are marked with asterisk) Even if Sardinia has a very low population density (1.66 million; 68 inhabitants/km 2 ), it presents a high concentration of beach litter, exhibiting most of the categories described in the protocol (Hanke et al. 2019). In line with other studies in the Mediterranean, most of the plastic recorded was unidentifiable fragmented items (G78, small plastic fragments; G73, foam sponge; G79, other plastic fragments; fragments) (Topçu et al. 2013;Prevenios et al. 2018) smaller than 10 cm, resulting from the breakdown of larger pieces (Andrady 2011). Data reported from Turkey show that most of the material washed ashore were small unidentifiable plastic debris and foam particles (Topçu et al. 2013), as also showed in this work. ...

The presence of beach litter along the coast is due to the indirect input by waves, wind, rivers and currents and to the direct deposition by beach users. This study, conducted in Sardinia (Western Mediterranean Sea), aims to quantify and characterize beach litter all around the island and to suggest the main sources of impact. Five monitoring campaigns (autumn 2013; spring 2014; autumn 2015; spring 2016; autumn 2016) were conducted considering 3 "exposed" and 4 "sheltered" beaches by means of 33.3-m linear transects in which all "macroscopic" items (> 5 mm) were collected. "Micro" litter (< 5 mm) sampling was performed in 6 beaches through 10-m linear transects. For both sampling designs, abundance and litter typologies were assessed following the protocols of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) and BASEMAN project. Repeated measures permutational analysis of variance was performed to detect any difference in abundance and composition of marine litter according to season, wind exposure and site. Exposure was the factor that better explains the distribution of litter: higher values were found on the "exposed" (E) sites with respect to the "sheltered" (S) ones, both for macroscopic (E: 1696.56 ± 219.25 items/100 m; S: 420.5 ± 74.73 items/100 m) and micro litter (E: 7990.67 ± 2319.44 items/10 m; S: 111.78 ± 25.91 items/10 m). All the 8 typologies were recorded, and litter composition significantly varied according to exposure and site over time. This work provides key information about litter presence and sources, useful to suggest possible mitigation measures.

... In fact, the global average of plastic among ML in sandy beaches monitoring have been estimated in 75% (Galgani et al., 2013;Š ilc et al., 2018), ranging between 61 and 87% in other assessments (Asensio-Montesinos et al., 2020;Gjyli et al., 2020;Munari et al., 2016;Nachite et al., 2019;Nelms et al., 2020;Sarafraz et al., 2016;Š ilc et al., 2018;Terzi et al., 2020). In studies performed in Portugal, Ionian sea, Italy and Australia, plastic residues accounted for more than 93% of all items collected (Pieper et al., 2019;Poeta et al., 2016;Prevenios et al., 2018;Wilson and Verlis, 2017). Plastic items are usually found in densities between 0.0 and 1.0 items/m 2 (Zhou et al., 2011), but reached 3.8 items/m 2 on the Black sea coast (Aytan et al., 2019). ...

Seasonal distribution of Marine Litter (ML) on Santos beaches was assessed using a citizen science strategy. Plastics and cigarette butts (CB) were the dominant items in all sampling campaigns. Seasonal distribution did not result in significant differences for most items. Plastic and CB amounts were high in summer compared to autumn. For all sampled sites the presence of beach users influenced ML densities. However, results showed that some sites presented an additional influence of local hydrodynamic. Moderate amounts of hazardous items including metal, glass, CB, sanitary waste and plastic tubes used to pack and market illicit drugs represented between 20.8 and 31% of all ML over the seasons. The beaches of Santos were classified as dirty in autumn and spring and as extremely dirty in winter and summer. These findings can serve as a baseline to support mitigating actions by public authorities and start monitoring programs of ML not only in Santos but also in other urbanized beaches.

... Several studies looked into the geographical patterns of beach litter [9] and suggested that they are influenced by abiotic and biotic drivers, such as, e.g., vegetation structure [17,18], dune morphology [19], wind, wave action, tides [20], and the density of debris materials [18,21,22]. On the other hand, other studies suggested that marine litter accumulation is mostly influenced by anthropogenic sources [23], identifying polluted rivers [24][25][26], densely populated urban areas [17,27], seashore mass tourism [25,28], fisheries, shipping, and thriving aquaculture activities [29][30][31] to promote litter accumulation on the coasts. Although the role of these factors in driving litter occurrence is well known, and the importance of a comprehensive approach for dealing with anthropogenic litter pollution has been recognized [12], only a few studies have investigated the simultaneous effect of these drivers on litter accumulation patterns on the coasts. ...

Beach litter accumulation patterns are influenced by biotic and abiotic factors, as well as by the distribution of anthropogenic sources. Although the importance of comprehensive approaches to deal with anthropogenic litter pollution is acknowledged, integrated studies including geomorphologic, biotic, and anthropic factors in relation to beach debris accumulation are still needed. In this perspective, Species Distribution Models (SDMs) might represent an appropriate tool to predict litter accumulation probability in relation to environmental conditions. In this context, we explored the applicability of a SDM–type modelling approach (a Litter Distribution Model; LDM) to map litter accumulation in coastal sand dunes. Starting from 180 litter sampling plots combined with fine–resolution variables, we calibrated LDMs from litter items classified either by their material type or origin. We also mapped litter accumulation hotspots. LDMs achieved fair-to-good predictive performance, with LDMs for litter classified by material type performing significantly better than models for litter classified by origin. Accumulation hotspots were mostly localized along the beach, by beach accesses, and at river mouths. In light of the promising results achieved by LDMs in this study, we conclude that this tool can be successfully applied within a coastal litter management context.

Polyethylenterephtalate (PET) is the preferred packaging material in the bottled water industry and represents the main cause of waste production. This work investigated the drinking water consumption habits, with particular reference to PET-bottled water, of people living in the province of Lecce (Apulia Region, Southern Italy) by age and geographical groups. Their perception about the quality of tap water was also explored. The survey was performed by the administration of a questionnaire to 4137 citizens. Bottled mineral water was consumed by about the 90.4% of respondents with an average consumption of 387.7 L/year per capita (375.2 L/year in PET-bottles, 12.5 L/year in glass bottles). Public supply system was used by the 61.5% of respondents with an average consumption of 169.4 L/year per capita. The consumption of tap water was negatively related to the perception of its bad quality and the residence in a big city (Lecce); while it was positively associated with the age group ≤ 16 years old. Effective communications strategies must be developed in order to promote the consumption of tap water and implement good practice of circular economy.

Unmanned aerial systems (UASs) have recently been proven to be valuable remote sensing tools for detecting marine macro litter (MML), with the potential of supporting pollution monitoring programs on coasts. Very low altitude images, acquired with a low-cost RGB camera onboard a UAS on a sandy beach, were used to characterize the abundance of stranded macro litter. We developed an object-oriented classification strategy for automatically identifying the marine macro litter items on a UAS-based orthomosaic. A comparison is presented among three automated object-oriented machine learning (OOML) techniques, namely random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), and k-nearest neighbor (KNN). Overall, the detection was satisfactory for the three techniques, with mean F-scores of 65% for KNN, 68% for SVM, and 72% for RF. A comparison with manual detection showed that the RF technique was the most accurate OOML macro litter detector, as it returned the best overall detection quality (F-score) with the lowest number of false positives. Because the number of tuning parameters varied among the three automated machine learning techniques and considering that the three generated abundance maps correlated similarly with the abundance map produced manually, the simplest KNN classifier was preferred to the more complex RF. This work contributes to advances in remote sensing marine litter surveys on coasts, optimizing the automated detection on UAS-derived orthomosaics. MML abundance maps, produced by UAS surveys, assist coastal managers and authorities through environmental pollution monitoring programs. In addition, they contribute to search and evaluation of the mitigation measures and improve clean-up operations on coastal environments.

Peter G. Ryan

Identifying the source of marine litter is essential to design effective mitigation measures to reduce plastic leakage into marine ecosystems. Kenya recently banned the use of polyethylene bags, but PET drink bottles remain a contentious source of litter in the country. I collected bottles and other single-use containers at nine Kenyan beaches, and compared their composition, country of manufacture and approximate age (time since manufacture) to bottles collected in coastal towns. Locally manufactured bottles dominated street litter (98%) and on urban beaches (93%) but became increasingly uncommon with distance from coastal towns, comprising only 30% of bottles at remote beaches. These steep spatial gradients indicate that most local bottles do not disperse far from source areas. The presence of lids is important for long-distance dispersal of glass and PET bottles, and many PET bottles littered in urban areas lack lids. HDPE bottles are much more common on beaches than on streets, and most come from Indonesia. The presence of epibionts and bite marks suggest that most HDPE bottles have drifted in the South Equatorial Current from southeast Asia, whereas foreign PP bottles mostly come from Indian Ocean island states. Reducing plastic leakage in southeast Asia should reduce the amount of beach litter throughout the western Indian Ocean. Some foreign PET bottles come from neighbouring states, but many are probably dumped illegally from ships operating from Asia. In addition to reducing plastic leakage from land-based sources, we need to ensure compliance with MARPOL Annex V regulations banning the disposal of plastic wastes at sea.

Susann Power

This research explores the phenomenon of beach cleaning as an activity for environmental activism and coastal recreation. This is significant as beach litter continues to blight coastal environments and decreases visitor satisfaction. Increasingly, groups of individuals are voluntarily removing litter from the beach. Through the use of Grounded Theory Ethnography, this research was able to conceptually explain beach cleaning behaviour; thereby producing an original theory of "enviro-leisure activism." After following groups of beach cleaners in Northern Ireland for 16 months and iteratively collecting and analysing data through participant observation and constant comparison analysis, it became evident that beach cleaning is a predominantly recreational activity, situated on the serious leisure spectrum with competing environmental and leisure motives. Beach cleaners inhabit social worlds bounded by legitimacy, identity and shared altruistic values. They exhibit low-level focused activism and a strong sense of place attachment. Story-telling and litter hunting emerged as mechanisms to cope with the perpetuity of the litter problem. Beach cleaning events could provide opportunities for tourism planners to promote inclusive, recreational family activities and attract new visitors to their local beach. Likewise, by engaging proactively with beach cleaning volunteers, environmental NGOs and policymakers could improve their own pro-environmental behaviour campaigns.

The 8th International Symposium "Monitoring of Mediterranean Coastal Areas. Problems and Measurements Techniques" was organized by CNR-IBE in collaboration with FCS Foundation, and Natural History Museum of the Mediterranean and under the patronage of University of Florence, Accademia dei Geogofili, Tuscany Region and Livorno Province. It is the occasion in which scholars can illustrate and exchange their activities and innovative proposals, with common aims to promote actions to preserve coastal marine environment. Considering Symposium interdisciplinary nature, the Scientific Committee, underlining this holistic view of Nature, decided to celebrate Alexander von Humboldt; a nature scholar that proposed the organic and inorganic nature's aspects as a single system. It represents a sign of continuity considering that in-presence Symposium could not be carried out due to the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions. Subjects are related to coastal topics: morphology; flora and fauna; energy production; management and integrated protection; geography and landscape, cultural heritage and environmental assets, legal and economic aspects.

The Vina del Mar - Concón Coastal strip is well known for its urban beaches, which play an essential role in the national economy. With extreme urban development, these beaches have become more polluted by litter. This paper evaluates the abundance, spatio-temporal distribution, typology, and sources of beach litter in 14 sectors located inside this coastal strip. A total of 19,886 litter items were collected and grouped into 50 different categories (11 litter typologies). Overall average litter abundance was 0.21 items/m2 while during the fall and winter averages were 0.25 items/m2 and 0.17 items/m2. Values changed along the area and between seasons. Plastics, cigarette butts and paper-cardboard typologies dominated the samples with 42% (0.088 items/m2), 25.4% (0.053 items/m2) and 20.8% (0.043 items/m2).

Carlos Mestanza-Ramón

SUN, SEA AND SAND TOURISM ALONG THE CONTINENTAL COAST OF ECUADOR AND THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS Several studies conducted in recent decades show that human needs for food, energy, transportation, recreation and other services in coastal areas are growing rapidly. Coastal areas are fragile ecosystems and, therefore, need to be properly managed to prevent impacts that affect both their natural characteristics and the associated ecosystem services they provide to humans, as well as their tourism potential. Activities related to sun and beach tourism in recent years have increased significantly; however, management is sometimes unsatisfactory and requires new strategies to prevent the degradation of coastal ecosystems and their sustainability. Hence, the main objective of this doctoral thesis was to analyze the current state and management of the "Sun, Sea and Sand (3S)" tourism in Continental Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands through exploratory techniques and bibliographic reviews that allow to strengthen the sustainability of the 3S tourism and, in general, the sustainable use of the coastal environment. The work was divided into four main research areas: i) analysis of tourism from the perspective of the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) were established, ii) classification of the coastal zone from a landscape approach, in order to obtain useful indications within the framework of the ICZM, iii) evaluation of the presence and characterization of beach litter to obtain information useful to manage the problem and, iv) analysis of the potential of 3 S tourism in continental Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands by analyzing its different components, i.e. the daily hours of sunshine, the color/transparency of the water and the color of the sand. Within the framework of the field studies, 67 beaches in 4 provinces were visited: Esmeraldas, Manabí, Santa Elena and Galapagos. The results indicate a certain level of contamination by beach litter, landscape features sometimes damaged by human activities and, in the vast majority of cases, natural conditions not always optimal for developing the 3S tourism. Thus, the beaches with international visitors and located in protected areas presented better results in scenic beauty and cleanliness, while in the continental zone an important aesthetic degradation of the coast was observed. The Galapagos Islands had the best results, with white sand beaches, transparent and blue water and many sunshine hours; meanwhile, the continental zone presented beaches with dark sand and unattractive water color. Finally, Ecuador has adequate policies for coastal management; however, despite the fact that Ecuador received support in terms of training and international funding for Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), the country has not managed to implement elementary aspects of the 3 S tourism. In the past, social issues and processes of economic dynamization have not been adequately developed and they have not received the necessary importance.

Alex Arnall
Uma Kothari

Islands, long portrayed in the western imaginary as remote, static and bounded entities, have increasingly come to be viewed as places constantly in the making: as connected sites formed by complex and shifting relations and assemblages of people and things. This paper considers the role that waste plays in this process through exploration of how discarded and unwanted matter decays, moves and comes to rest in relation to a small island in the Maldives. It shows how thinking about the island through waste and its circulation via the actions of human and non‐human agents reveals the ways in which the island is constituted and connected to other places. The paper also examines people's daily, practical engagements with the island's waste, and how these ongoing interactions and encounters shape the ways in which the island is being made, materially and aesthetically. In these ways, we show how thinking through waste contributes to how we understand place‐making and specifically to the making of islandness.

Aline Brandão Mariath
Ana Paula Bortoletto Martins

Objective to assess the strategies, practices, and arguments used by the industry to lobby legislators against sugary drinks taxation in Brazil. Design we performed a content analysis of arguments put forward by sugary drink and sugar industries against sugary drinks taxation, using the framework developed by the International Network for Food and Obesity/NCD Research, Monitoring and Action Support to assess corporate political activity of the food industry. Setting two public hearings held in 2017 and 2018 in the Brazilian Legislature. Participants representatives from two prominent industry associations – one representing Big Soda and the other representing the main sugar, ethanol, and bioelectricity producers. Results the 'Information and messaging' and 'Policy substitution' strategies were identified. Five practices were identified in the 'Information and messaging' strategy (four described in the original framework and an additional practice, 'Stress the environmental importance of the industry'). Mechanisms not included in the original framework identified were 'Stress the reduction of CO 2 emissions promoted by the industry'; 'Question the effectiveness of regulation'; 'Suggest public-private partnerships'; 'Shift the blame away from the product'; and 'Question sugary drinks taxation as a public health recommendation'. No new practices or mechanisms to the original framework emerged in the 'Policy substitution' strategy. Conclusions the strategies and practices are used collectively and complement each other. Arguments hereby identified are in line with those reported in other countries under different contexts and using different methodologies. Future research should address whether and under what conditions lobbying from this industry sector is effective in the Brazilian Legislature.

Eldirdery Abeadallah Abdelrahman Ibrahim
Nahid Abdel Rahim Osman
Omar Ali Mohamed Eisa

Information on marine litter in general and beach litter in particular from Sudan and to some extent from the Red Sea region is insufficient. The aim of this study is to assess the beach litter composition, distribution, and abundance in some selected beaches of the World Heritage Site of Dungonab Bay and Mukkawar Island National Park (DMNP) located in Sudan, Red Sea coast, and to examine the rate of beach litter flux and the cleanliness of its beaches in order to provide baseline information for beach litter management at DMNP. A total of 6 sites were investigated for beach litter over a 10-month period from January to October 2017 on a quarterly basis. A total of 24 collections of beach litter were performed covering a stretch of 600 m or 7700 m2 of DMNP coastline. In total, 3037 beach litter items were collected during the study time from DMNP with an overall average of 506.2 ± 409.8 items/100 m (0.4 items/m2). Plastic beach litter was the most abundant (1738 items), constituting 57.23% with an average density of 289.7 ± 242.2 items/100 m (0.23 items/m2). The beaches of DMNP were clean (CCI = 4.6) at the time of the study. The rate of flux of the beach litter decreased steadily from 21.9 to 16.43 items/100 m/day with an overall average of 18.82 ± 2.8 items/100 m/day. The gradual decrease in the net accumulation of beach litter over the period of the study suggests that the beach litter at DMNP was likely of a local land-based origin and the beaches of DMNP are not a potential sink of marine litter. The determination of the rate of flux of beach litter is a reasonable indicator of the dynamics of beach litter in DMNP. Accordingly, application of preventive measures accompanied with awareness activities and investment in plastic collection and recycling would further enhance and preserve the present status of beach cleanliness and encourage tourism activities.

Plastic pollution is a global problem and reliable, coherent and comparable data are essential for targeted mitigation strategies. Throughout the years Mediterranean NGOs have significantly contributed to providing data and information on the temporal and spatial distribution of marine litter found stranded on beaches; thus participatory-science campaigns are an essential tool to fill in the marine litter knowledge gaps. The present study reports the findings of beach litter surveys carried out by 7 NGOs in 23 sites along the coastline of the Mediterranean. The average litter density per site varied from 53 items/100 m to 6,660 items/100 m, with a median of 451 items/100 m. The majority of litter items were made of artificial/anthropogenic polymer materials accounting for 90% of all litter collected. Litter from shoreline sources accounted for 38%. Single-use plastics (SUPs) accounted for 38% of all items recorded ranging from 18.6% to 66.9% for the different beaches. 30% of the investigated beaches had more than 50% of SUPs of the total items recorded, thus providing baseline information and supporting evidence for the Single-Use Plastics Directive.

Twelve beaches located in Ceuta (Spain) were studied from February to April 2019 to assess litter amounts (expressed as number of items), categories and temporal distribution. At each beach, three surveys were conducted, i.e., one per month (i.e., 36 in total). Selected beaches covered urban (7), rural (2) and remote (3) bathing areas. Plastic represented the dominant material, i.e., 35.2% of all debris, followed by glass (18.2%), pottery/ceramics (14.6%), wood (11.4%), metal (11.4%), paper/cardboard (4.8%), cloth (3.5%), rubber (0.7%), organic (0.3%) and other materials (0.1%). The Clean Coast Index was calculated to classify beaches in five categories for evaluating the cleanliness level of the coast observed at each survey: "Very Clean" (7 surveys), "Clean" (10), "Moderately Dirty" (8), "Dirty" (2) and "Extremely Dirty" (9). Litter occurrence was assessed by the Litter Grade methodology, which allowed to classify beaches in four grades: "A": very good (0); "B": good (4); "C": fair (7); and "D": poor (25). In a few surveys, some beaches were considered "good", but their management should not be ignored because in other surveys those beaches reached fair and poor scores. Several potentially harmful litter items were related to beach users. Severe eastern storms removed litter at many of the beaches investigated and favored accumulation at others. Data analysis shows significant differences in litter abundance with respect to site, beach typology and the presence of cleaning operations but no important differences between the studied months. Rural beaches recorded the most litter, followed by urban and remote beaches. All beaches require immediate and more appropriate management actions to improve their environmental status.

This is the second of two volumes that together provide an integrated picture of the Montenegrin Adriatic coast, presenting the natural components of the system as well as the chemical composition and chemical processes in the extended area. This book covers all aspects of marine chemistry such as the hydrographic and oceanographic characteristics of seawater, the toxicity of heavy metals in the marine environment, the quality of marinas and maritime areas, and the legal regime for protecting the marine environment from pollution. Given the breadth and depth of its coverage, the book offers an invaluable source of information for researchers, students and environmental managers alike.

Marine litter is a global problem causing harm to marine wildlife, coastal communities and maritime activities. It also embodies an emerging concern for human health and safety. The reduction of marine litter pollution poses a complex challenge for humankind, requiring adjustments in human behaviour as well as in the different phases of the lifecycle of products and across multiple economic sectors. The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) requires European Member States to monitor marine litter and implement programmes of measures to reduce its occurrence. A crucial step in monitoring and effectively addressing marine litter is the identification of the origin and the pathways that lead to litter entering the marine environment. A given site or region can be subject to litter pollution from a number of sources, which can be local, regional or even distant, as litter can be transported to a specific area by ocean currents and wind drift. For this reason, pinpointing the origin of the different items that make up marine litter is a difficult task and will always have an inherent degree of associated uncertainty. Plastic food packaging recorded in the marine environment, for example, can consist of a diverse selection of items, which can be generated from a number of sources, which in turn can be sea-based or land-based and originate from near or distant regions. A wide variety of methods have been used over the years to determine the sources of marine litter, from simple counts of items believed to originate from a given source to more complex statistical methods. This report provides a brief overview of the main methods used and outlines one of the most promising approaches for determining sources – a Matrix Score Technique based on likelihoods, which considers the possibility that specific items originate from more than one source. Furthermore, it presents a series of other parameters that can be used to analyse data-sets, with regard to the use, origin and risk of items recorded in the marine or coastal environments. These can further support decision-making when considering preventive measures. Finally, recommendations to help the process of identification of sources are given, from the early stage of data collection and site characterization to bringing in the knowledge of local stakeholders to better determine where litter is coming from and what needs to be done to prevent it.

Marine litter related information in the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, as well as in the Mediterranean, remains limited, inconsistent and fragmented, although it is widely considered that the Mediterranean is one of the most affected seas by marine litter worldwide. Effective measures to tackle marine litter in the region are seriously hampered by the lack of reliable scientific data. Within this context the need for accurate, coherent and comparable scientific data on marine litter in the Adriatic and Ionian Seas is evident in order to set priorities for action and address marine litter effectively, thus ensuring the sustainable management and use of the marine and coastal environment of the Adriatic-Ionian macroregion. The IPA-Adriatic funded DeFishGear project undertook the challenge to address the need for accurate, coherent and comparable scientific data on marine litter in the Adriatic-Ionian macroregion. The DeFishGear project was a 3-year long project piloting coordinated and harmonized actions on the science-policy-society interface for litter-free Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The DeFishGear marine litter assessment report presents the results of the one-year long DeFishGear marine litter surveys aiming to assess the amounts, sources and impacts of marine macro-litter in the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. This is the first-ever effort to-date aiming to assess in a coordinated, consistent, comprehensive and harmonized way the amounts, composition and, to the extent possible, the sources of marine litter in all marine matrices (beaches, sea surface, sea floor, biota) of seven countries sharing the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. This is in fact the first of its kind marine litter assessment - at European and European Regional Seas level - which is based on comparable field data obtained for all marine compartments through the application of harmonized monitoring protocols developed within the framework of the project, thus providing also strategic input with regards to coordinating, harmonizing and even standardizing marine litter monitoring. This assessment aims to be a direct and concrete contribution to the implementation of the main legislative marine litter related frameworks in the Adriatic-Ionian macroregion, the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive, the UNEP/MAP Regional Plan for Marine litter Management in the Mediterranean and the EU Strategy for the Adriatic and Ionian Region. Furthermore, it provides valuable information and strategic input to European and European Regional Seas efforts in successfully achieving good environmental status with regards to marine litter. This assessment was based on one-year long surveys carried out in all marine compartments in the seven countries of the Adriatic-Ionian macroregion. More specifically: (i) 180 beach transects were surveyed in 31 locations, covering 31.000m2 and extending over 18.000m (18km) of coastline; (ii) 66 floating litter transects were conducted with small scale vessels covering a distance of 415km, while a total of 9062km were surveyed by observers on ferries; (iii) for the seafloor litter 11 locations were investigated with bottom trawl surveys and 121 hauls were performed, while 38 transects were performed in 10 locations with underwater visual surveys with scuba/snorkeling; (iv) for litter in biota 81 hauls were conducted and 614 fish individuals were studied.

Marine litter is one descriptor in the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). This study provides the first account of an MSFD indicator (Trends in the amount of litter deposited on coastlines) for the north-western Adriatic. Five beaches were sampled in 2015. Plastic dominated in terms of abundance, followed by paper and other groups. The average density was 0.2litteritemsm(-2), but at one beach it raised to 0.57itemsm(-2). The major categories were cigarette butts, unrecognizable plastic pieces, bottle caps, and others. The majority of marine litter came from land-based sources: shoreline and recreational activities, smoke-related activities and dumping. Sea-based sources contributed for less. The abundance and distribution of litter seemed to be particularly influenced by beach users, reflecting inadequate disposal practices. The solution to these problems involves implementation and enforcement of local educational and management policies.

Anthony L Andrady

The increasing global production and use of plastics has led to an accumulation of enormous amounts of plastic litter in the world's oceans. Characteristics such as low density, good mechanical properties and low cost allow for successful use of plastics in industries and everyday life but the high durability leads to persistence of the synthetic polymers in the marine environment where they cause harm to a great variety of organisms. In the diverse marine habitats, including beaches, the sea surface, the water column, and the seafloor, plastics are exposed to different environmental conditions that either accelerate or decelerate the physical, chemical and biological degradation of plastics. Degradation of plastics occurs primarily through solar UV-radiation induced photo oxidation reactions and is, thus, most intensive in photic environments such as the sea surface and on beaches. The rate of degradation is temperature-dependent resulting in considerable deceleration of the processes in seawater, which is a good heat sink. Below the photic zone in the water column, plastics degrade very slowly resulting in high persistence of plastic litter especially at the seafloor. Biological decomposition of plastics by microorganisms is negligible in the marine environment because the kinetics of biodegradation at sea is particularly slow and oxygen supply for these processes limited. Degradation of larger plastic items leads to the formation of abundant small microplastics. The transport of small particles to the seafloor and their deposition in the benthic environment is facilitated by the colonization of the material by fouling organisms, which increase the density of the particles and force them to sink. © 2015, Springer International Publishing. All Rights Reserved.

Dan Bowman
N. Manor-Samsonov
Abraham Golik

The dynamic behavior of coastal litter is followed on Israeli beaches. Subsequently, the impact of the coastal geomorphology on litter dynamics is examined. Six prototype sampling beaches of different morphology were selected. The position, number, composition and nature of all the litter pieces, within a 50 m beach front, were recorded on each beach. Strips of litter concentration were demarcated and their movement was mapped along shore-normal transects. All items were tagged in situ, each beach strip by a different color. These sampling procedures enabled to define inflow, outflow, transfer, storage and reemergence of buried litter. We also calculated the litter budget at each site, traced litter movement through the beach and calculated the residence time and the turnover period. The littered area in all beaches, over the entire study period, was less than one percent. The widest beaches were the most littered. Specific beach morphology, as ridge and runnel, made the backshore an efficient trap for the litter. The results show that the narrower the beach the higher its litter flux. The narrowest sandy beach showed the highest range of dynamics. The litter is spread and organized in distinct strips. Their pattern reflects the specific beach depositional dynamics. The Israeli Mediterranean coast is homogeneous in its high mobility of litter, shown by a similar input and output of litter items and by the almost balanced budget of litter on each studied site. Turnover time, i.e., the time needed to replace the total litter on each beach, is only a few months long and less than half a year. This high mobility of the litter means poor persistence and a good self-cleaning capacity. The data suggests that the Israeli beaches are essentially a transfer route for the litter, which migrates along and finally seems to bypass them.

Marine debris is commonly observed everywhere in the oceans. Litter enters the seas from both land-based sources, from ships and other installations at sea, from point and diffuse sources, and can travel long distances before being stranded. Plastics typically constitute the most important part of marine litter sometimes accounting for up to 100 % of floating litter. On beaches, most studies have demonstrated densities in the 1 item m−2 range except for very high concentrations because of local conditions, after typhoons or flooding events. Floating marine debris ranges from 0 to beyond 600 items km−2. On the sea bed, the abundance of plastic debris is very dependent on location, with densities ranging from 0 to >7700 items km−2, mainly in coastal areas. Recent studies have demonstrated that pollution of microplastics, particles <5 mm, has spread at the surface of oceans, in the water column and in sediments, even in the deep sea. Concentrations at the water surface ranged from thousands to hundred thousands of particles km−2. Fluxes vary widely with factors such as proximity of urban activities, shore and coastal uses, wind and ocean currents. These enable the presence of accumulation areas in oceanic convergence zones and on the seafloor, notably in coastal canyons. Temporal trends are not clear with evidences for increases, decreases or without changes, depending on locations and environmental conditions. In terms of distribution and quantities, proper global estimations based on standardized approaches are still needed before considering efficient management and reduction measures.

The abundance, composition, and potential sources of marine debris were investigated on remote Alphonse Island, during the austral winter 2013. A total of 4743 items, weighing 142kg, were removed from 1km of windward beach, facing the prevailing southeasterly trade winds. Our study demonstrates the prevalence of plastic debris as a world-wide marine contaminant. Characteristics of the debris suggest it originated primarily from land-based sources. To determine their potential geographic sources we used the Surface Current from Diagnostic model of near-surface ocean currents, forced by satellite sea level and wind data. While preliminary evidence indicated the Southeast Asia to be the main source of the flotsam, the model highlighted Somalia as another potential primary source. Our study concludes that most of the collected debris entered the sea as a result of inadequate waste management and demonstrates how anthropogenic waste can negatively impact even the most remote environments. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Concentrations of floating plastic were measured throughout the Mediterranean Sea to assess whether this basin can be regarded as a great accumulation region of plastic debris. We found that the average density of plastic (1 item per 4 m2), as well as its frequency of occurrence (100% of the sites sampled), are comparable to the accumulation zones described for the five subtropical ocean gyres. Plastic debris in the Mediterranean surface waters was dominated by millimeter-sized fragments, but showed a higher proportion of large plastic objects than that present in oceanic gyres, reflecting the closer connection with pollution sources. The accumulation of floating plastic in the Mediterranean Sea (between 1,000 and 3,000 tons) is likely related to the high human pressure together with the hydrodynamics of this semi-enclosed basin, with outflow mainly occurring through a deep water layer. Given the biological richness and concentration of economic activities in the Mediterranean Sea, the affects of plastic pollution on marine and human life are expected to be particularly frequent in this plastic accumulation region.

Plastic pollution is ubiquitous throughout the marine environment, yet estimates of the global abundance and weight of floating plastics have lacked data, particularly from the Southern Hemisphere and remote regions. Here we report an estimate of the total number of plastic particles and their weight floating in the world's oceans from 24 expeditions (2007–2013) across all five sub-tropical gyres, costal Australia, Bay of Bengal and the Mediterranean Sea conducting surface net tows (N5680) and visual survey transects of large plastic debris (N5891). Using an oceanographic model of floating debris dispersal calibrated by our data, and correcting for wind-driven vertical mixing, we estimate a minimum of 5.25 trillion particles weighing 268,940 tons. When comparing between four size classes, two microplastic ,4.75 mm and meso- and macroplastic .4.75 mm, a tremendous loss of microplastics is observed from the sea surface compared to expected rates of fragmentation, suggesting there are mechanisms at play that remove ,4.75 mm plastic particles from the ocean surface.

Anthropogenic litter is present in all marine habitats, from beaches to the most remote points in the oceans. On the seafloor, marine litter, particularly plastic, can accumulate in high densities with deleterious consequences for its inhabitants. Yet, because of the high cost involved with sampling the seafloor, no large-scale assessment of distribution patterns was available to date. Here, we present data on litter distribution and density collected during 588 video and trawl surveys across 32 sites in European waters. We found litter to be present in the deepest areas and at locations as remote from land as the Charlie-Gibbs Fracture Zone across the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The highest litter density occurs in submarine canyons, whilst the lowest density can be found on continental shelves and on ocean ridges. Plastic was the most prevalent litter item found on the seafloor. Litter from fishing activities (derelict fishing lines and nets) was particularly common on seamounts, banks, mounds and ocean ridges. Our results highlight the extent of the problem and the need for action to prevent increasing accumulation of litter in marine environments.

The abundance, nature and possible sources of litter on 32 beaches on the Balearic Islands (Mediterranean Sea) were investigated in 2005. Mean summer abundances in the Balearics reached approximately 36 items m-1, with a corresponding weight of 32±25 g m-1, which is comparable to the results of other studies in the Mediterranean. Multivariate analyses (principal component analysis and redundancy analysis) confirmed strong similarities between islands and a statistically significant seasonal evolution of litter composition and abundance. In summer (the high tourist season), debris contamination expressed as item abundance was double that in the low season and showed a heterogeneous nature associated with beach use. Cigarette butts were the most abundant item, accounting for up to 46% of the objects observed in the high tourist season. In contrast, plastics related to personal hygiene/medical items were predominant in wintertime (67%) and natural wood was the most important debris by weight (75%). In both seasons, litter characteristics suggested a strong relationship with local land-based origins. While beach users were the main source of summer debris, low tourist season litter was primarily attributed to drainage and outfall systems.

Litter that accumulates in the marine environment is recognized as a global environmental problem with numerous adverse effects. Despite Greece having more than 16,000 km of coastline, studies on litter composition and sources on its beaches are scarce and fragmentary. Therefore, this study aimed to quantify beach-stranded litter by type of material (plastic, glass, paper, aluminum, other metals, building materials, rope) on 80 Greek beaches, and to explore the relationships between different litter materials and marine- and land-based sources. Field work and data collection were accomplished with the participation of 10,938 and 15,748 volunteers in 2006 and 2007, respectively, and were integrated in the nationwide campaign of voluntary beach clean-ups: "Clean up the Med." The participation of thousands of volunteers of different ages and social backgrounds in the data collection process not only led to the realization of a national level survey, but also played a significant role in raising public awareness on marine environmental issues, and in promoting a sense of responsibility in protecting marine resources. Plastic was the most abundant litter material found on the surveyed beaches (43–51%), followed by paper (13–18%) and aluminum (7–12%). Onshore and nearshore recreational activities, such as bathing and recreational boating, appeared to be the most dominant litter sources, as they affect the majority (56) of the surveyed beaches, suggesting that environmental education and awareness could reduce the beach-litter pollution problem. Navigation seemed to be the dominant source of marine-based litter, affecting more than half (46) of the surveyed beaches.

Tony Robert Walker
Jon Grant
Marie-Claude Archambault

This study evaluated monthly accumulation rates and types of marine debris washed ashore at a recreational beach in Point Pleasant Park, Halifax Harbour, between April and September 2005. Black Rock Beach is 70 m long and a total of 2129 marine debris items were collected and sorted, representing a mean accumulation rate of 355 (±68 SE) items month-1. The total weight of debris items was only 10.8 kg (mean 2 kg ±0.4 SE), however eighty-six percent of this debris was plastic material. The types of litter found included: tampon applicators, condoms (i.e., sewage-related debris [SRD]); plastic fast food packaging, confectionary wrappers, Styrofoam fragments, plastic bottles and caps, items of clothing, soft drink cans, cigarettes and cigarette holders (i.e., recreational or land-based debris); packing bands, nylon rope and nets (i.e., shipping- or fishing-related debris). These items were generated by recreational use of the park (52%), sewage disposal (14%) and from shipping and fishing activities (7%). It is suggested that a significant reduction in marine debris at recreational beaches may arise by improving public awareness of the environmental and aesthetic impacts of marine litter and future improvements to the municipal sewage disposal system.

Policies for managing plastic debris are outdated and threaten the health of people and wildlife, say Chelsea M. Rochman, Mark Anthony Browne and colleagues.

We assessed amounts, composition, and trends of marine debris for the U.S. Pacific Coast and Hawai'i using National Marine Debris Monitoring Program data. Hawai'i had the highest debris loads; the North Pacific Coast region had the lowest debris loads. The Southern California Bight region had the highest land-based debris loads. Debris loads decreased over time for all source categories in all regions except for land-based and general-source loads in the North Pacific Coast region, which were unchanged. General-source debris comprised 30-40% of the items in all regions. Larger local populations were associated with higher land-based debris loads across regions; the effect declined at higher population levels. Upwelling affected deposition of ocean-based and general-source debris loads but not land-based loads along the Pacific Coast. LNSO decreased debris loads for both land-based and ocean-based debris but not general-source debris in Hawai'i, a more complex climate-ocean effect than had previously been found.

Kathryn H Taffs
Murray C Cullen

Beach debris items were collected and categorized during surveys of five isolated beaches on the northern New South Wales coastline in September 2003. The selected beaches covered more than 21 km of contiguous coastline. Litter density and distribution per 500 m segment was calculated. The highest density of litter was found on the most isolated beaches with little public access but no protection by headlands from the ocean swells. The results indicate that management of beach debris needs to focus on reducing the litter entering the marine environment.

For the first time, we documented regional differences in amounts and long-term trends of marine debris along the US Atlantic coast. The Southeast Atlantic had low land-based and general-source debris loads as well as no increases despite a 19% increase in coastal population. The Northeast (8% population increase) also had low land-based and general-source debris loads and no increases. The Mid-Atlantic (10% population increase) fared the worst, with heavy land-based and general-source debris loads that increased over time. Ocean-based debris did not change in the Northeast where the fishery is relatively stable; it declined over the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast and was correlated with declining regional fisheries. Drivers, including human population, land use status, fishing activity, and oceanic current systems, had complex relationships with debris loads at local and regional scales. Management challenges remain undeniably large but solid information from long-term programs is one key to addressing this pressing pollution issue.

Plastic debris has significant environmental and economic impacts in marine systems. Monitoring is crucial to assess the efficacy of measures implemented to reduce the abundance of plastic debris, but it is complicated by large spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the amounts of plastic debris and by our limited understanding of the pathways followed by plastic debris and its long-term fate. To date, most monitoring has focused on beach surveys of stranded plastics and other litter. Infrequent surveys of the standing stock of litter on beaches provide crude estimates of debris types and abundance, but are biased by differential removal of litter items by beachcombing, cleanups and beach dynamics. Monitoring the accumulation of stranded debris provides an index of debris trends in adjacent waters, but is costly to undertake. At-sea sampling requires large sample sizes for statistical power to detect changes in abundance, given the high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Another approach is to monitor the impacts of plastics. Seabirds and other marine organisms that accumulate plastics in their stomachs offer a cost-effective way to monitor the abundance and composition of small plastic litter. Changes in entanglement rates are harder to interpret, as they are sensitive to changes in population sizes of affected species. Monitoring waste disposal on ships and plastic debris levels in rivers and storm-water runoff is useful because it identifies the main sources of plastic debris entering the sea and can direct mitigation efforts. Different monitoring approaches are required to answer different questions, but attempts should be made to standardize approaches internationally.

One of the most ubiquitous and long-lasting recent changes to the surface of our planet is the accumulation and fragmentation of plastics. Within just a few decades since mass production of plastic products commenced in the 1950s, plastic debris has accumulated in terrestrial environments, in the open ocean, on shorelines of even the most remote islands and in the deep sea. Annual clean-up operations, costing millions of pounds sterling, are now organized in many countries and on every continent. Here we document global plastics production and the accumulation of plastic waste. While plastics typically constitute approximately 10 per cent of discarded waste, they represent a much greater proportion of the debris accumulating on shorelines. Mega- and macro-plastics have accumulated in the highest densities in the Northern Hemisphere, adjacent to urban centres, in enclosed seas and at water convergences (fronts). We report lower densities on remote island shores, on the continental shelf seabed and the lowest densities (but still a documented presence) in the deep sea and Southern Ocean. The longevity of plastic is estimated to be hundreds to thousands of years, but is likely to be far longer in deep sea and non-surface polar environments. Plastic debris poses considerable threat by choking and starving wildlife, distributing non-native and potentially harmful organisms, absorbing toxic chemicals and degrading to micro-plastics that may subsequently be ingested. Well-established annual surveys on coasts and at sea have shown that trends in mega- and macro-plastic accumulation rates are no longer uniformly increasing: rather stable, increasing and decreasing trends have all been reported. The average size of plastic particles in the environment seems to be decreasing, and the abundance and global distribution of micro-plastic fragments have increased over the last few decades. However, the environmental consequences of such microscopic debris are still poorly understood.

P. Randerson
R.E. Earll
D. T. Tudor
Allan Williams

Beach litter found along the Bristol Channel and the coastline of mid-Wales, UK, together with litter obtained from Turkey, Malta, Spain, Tunisia and U.S.A. tourist beaches, and litter gathered from rural roads in Gloucestershire, England, UK, was analyzed by principal component analysis (PCA). PCA distinguished between riverine, sewage-related debris and shipping/fishing source items, but sourcing beach user litter was more problematic. This was attributed to a difference in litter transport mechanisms. PCA for the Bristol Channel distinguished between riverine and marine sources (inner vs. outer channel) and also a sewage sourced group. PCA indicated a land-based source for marine debris found on Mediterranean and USA beaches together with roadside litter from England. Three 'litter markers' introduced into the analyses, were comprised of different source groupings: 'vessels' (both fishing and other sea going vessels), 'beach users', and sewage-related debris (SRD). The former stood out from the latter two markers with beach user and SRD markers appearing to be indistinguishable. The item numbers in each group were six, five and three respectively and this could account for the findings.

Changchun Zhou
Xu Liu
Zhengwen Wang
Cuicui Zhang

Compared with United States of America (USA), Brazil, Chile, Australia, limited attention has been paid to marine debris research in China and few studies have attempted to quantify the abundance and mass of marine debris. In this study, firstly the general status and sources of marine debris in China were assessed in the time period between 2007 and 2014, and secondly marine debris situation was evaluated in three China Sea Areas (the North China Sea, the East China Sea and the South China Sea) from 2009 to 2013, and finally marine debris conditions and sources were analyzed in beaches or seawaters around some coastal provinces of China during 2007-2013. Based on above analysis, the primary conclusions were as follows: (1) The mean number and weight densities of beached marine debris (BMD) and submerged marine debris (SMD) were 4.30, 0.13items/100m(2) and 133.80, 22.60g/100m(2) in China from 2007 to 2014, respectively. The average number density of the large size FMD (LOSFMD) was 0.0024items/100m(2) and that of the small and medium size FMD (SMSFMD) was 0.30items/100m(2), and the mean weight density of the SMSFMD was 1.40g/100m(2) from 2008 to 2014. The SMD and FMD densities were at the low level and the BMD density was at the high level in China. (2) The marine debris primarily was comprised of plastic, Styrofoam, wood, glass, rubber, fabric/fiber and metal, which included almost all major categories of marine debris. (3) Sources of BMD and FMD were as follows: the first source was coastal/recreational activities, followed by other disposal sources, navigation/fishing activities and the activities related smoking, and the least source being those associated with medical/sanitary activities, while the source of SMD remained unknown. (4) The mean number and weight densities of BMD were the biggest in the North China Sea, while those of FMD and SMD were the highest in the northern South China Sea. The results of this study were beneficial to the establishment of management measures for dealing with ecological and environmental problems that were generated by the high speed socio-economic development in China.

Peter G Ryan

This chapter traces the history of marine litter research from anecdotal reports of entanglement and plastic ingestion in the 1960s to the current focus on microplastics and their role in the transfer of persistent organic pollutants to marine food webs. The reports in Science of large numbers of plastic pellets in the North Atlantic in the early 1970s stimulated research interest in plastic litter at sea, with papers reporting plastics on the seafloor and impacting a variety of marine animals. The focus then shifted to high concentrations of plastic litter in the North Pacific, where novel studies reported the dynamics of stranded beach litter, the factors influencing plastic ingestion by seabirds, and trends in fur seal entanglement. By the early 1980s, growing concern about the potential impacts of marine litter resulted in a series of meetings on marine debris. The first two international conferences held in Honolulu by the US National Marine Fisheries Service played a key role in setting the research agenda for the next decade. By the end of the 1980s, most impacts of marine litter were reasonably well understood, and attention shifted to seeking effective solutions to tackle the marine litter problem. Research was largely restricted to monitoring trends in litter to assess the effectiveness of mitigation measures, until the last decade, when concern about microplastics coupled with the discovery of alarming densities of small plastic particles in the North Pacific 'garbage patch' (and other mid-ocean gyres) stimulated the current wave of research. © 2015, Springer International Publishing. All Rights Reserved.

Thomas Clemens
Harald Förster
Eike Hartwig
Marcus Schulz

In the North Sea, the amount of litter present in the marine environment represents a severe environmental problem. In order to assess the magnitude of the problem and measure changes in abundance, the results of two beach litter monitoring programmes were compared and analysed for long-term trends applying multivariate techniques. Total beach litter pollution was persistently high. Spatial differences in litter abundance made it difficult to identify long-term trends: Partly more than 8000 litter items year(-1) were recorded on a 100 m long survey site on the island of Scharhörn, while the survey site on the beach on the island of Amrum revealed abundances lower by two orders of magnitude. Beach litter was dominated by plastic with mean proportions of 52%-91% of total beach litter. Non-parametric time series analyses detected many significant trends, which, however, did not show any systematic spatial patterns. Cluster analyses partly led to groupings of beaches according to their expositions to sources of litter, wind and currents. Surveys in short intervals of one to two weeks were found to give higher annual sums of beach litter than the quarterly surveys of the OSPAR method. Surveys at regular intervals of four weeks to five months would make monitoring results more reliable. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Plastic debris in the marine environment is widely documented, but the quantity of plastic entering the ocean from waste generated on land is unknown. By linking worldwide data on solid waste, population density, and economic status, we estimated the mass of land-based plastic waste entering the ocean. We calculate that 275 million metric tons (MT) of plastic waste was generated in 192 coastal countries in 2010, with 4.8 to 12.7 million MT entering the ocean. Population size and the quality of waste management systems largely determine which countries contribute the greatest mass of uncaptured waste available to become plastic marine debris. Without waste management infrastructure improvements, the cumulative quantity of plastic waste available to enter the ocean from land is predicted to increase by an order of magnitude by 2025. Copyright © 2015, American Association for the Advancement of Science.

The exponential decay of the amount of new litter on Wadahama Beach, Nii-jima Island, Japan revealed by 20-month mark-recapture experiments demonstrates a linear response of the beach to the input of target items. Here we show the amplitude and phase characteristics of the beach as a time-invariant linear input/output system and discuss the hydrodynamic and geomorphological factors that would determine the characteristics with the aid of a diffusion equation. The characteristics are fully determined by the residence time of the items (τr=209days) and can be described as functions of the ratio of τr to the period of input variability. The decay is reproduced well by the analytical solution of the equation with a constant diffusion coefficient (D), whose order was estimated by τr and the backshore width. Generally, D would depend on hydrodynamical statistics and beach geomorphology as well as the dimensions and density of the items.

During the last decades, marine pollution with anthropogenic litter has become a worldwide major environmental concern. Standardized monitoring of litter since 2001 on 78 beaches selected within the framework of the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR) has been used to identify temporal trends of marine litter. Based on statistical analyses of this dataset a two-part multi-criteria evaluation system for beach litter pollution of the North-East Atlantic and the North Sea is proposed. Canonical correlation analyses, linear regression analyses, and non-parametric analyses of variance were used to identify different temporal trends. A classification of beaches was derived from cluster analyses and served to define different states of beach quality according to abundances of 17 input variables. The evaluation system is easily applicable and relies on the above-mentioned classification and on significant temporal trends implied by significant rank correlations.

George Papatheodorou

The study of marine litter has become an interesting issue for many scientists over the last three decades, given the significant environmental and economic impacts involved. Marine litter may be found in a wide range of environments from shore and shallow waters to abyssal oceanic basins. Marine debris can be found very close to the source or can be transported to remote mid-ocean islands by ocean currents and winds. This globally distributed pattern is caused by a wide variety of oceanographic and sedimentological processes, which include wind/wave and prevailing currents, oceanic fronts and eddies in convergence zones, estuarine bottom salinity fronts and hyperpycnal and turbidity currents. Sources of marine litter can be categorised into land- and marine-based. Land litter sources are urban, municipal and industrial landfills. Land-originated litter enters the marine environment via rivers, municipal drainage systems, ephemeral streams and sewage inputs and by beachgoers. Marine or ocean-based litter sources are commercial and recreational fishing, shipping (merchant, ferries and recreational boats) and aquaculture installations.Due to limitations from the accessibility and selection of litter items, marine debris has mostly been examined on beach surveys, and only a few studies have focused on floating litter and seabed distribution. The most common methodologies used for floating and benthic litter investigation are (i) visual inspection of the sea surface, (ii) diving techniques in shallow water and (iii) trawling sampling and submersibles in the continental shelves and deep seas. Marine litter studies usually classify collected items according to the material of which they are made and for what they are used and include calculation of densities for each defined type and estimations for the selected water column or seabed.From the reviewed literature, the Mediterranean Sea presents the greatest litter pollution in both the water column and seabed in terms of density. Calculated densities of floating litter in the Mediterranean Sea show a high variability and range from 0.12 to 2,000 item/km2. The average benthic litter density for this sea is estimated to be 42 items/ha. This value is one order of magnitude greater than estimations for the Atlantic (2.08 item/ha) and Pacific Oceans (1.07 item/ha), which is due to the unique morphology (i.e., it is almost enclosed by land) of the Mediterranean Sea and the combination of its densely populated coastline, the intense shipping in its waters and the large number of river inflows into the Mediterranean Sea. Litter densities are not homogeneously distributed on the Mediterranean seabed, showing very high values at the shallow coastal zone (<25 m), significantly lower values over the continental shelf (<200 m) and elevated densities in deeper waters. Plastic is the dominant litter material (61.4%) in the Mediterranean Sea. The spatial distribution of benthic litter shows that river inputs and the river canyon-deep sea fan system are major contributing factors to the amount of litter in the Mediterranean Sea, which indicates the importance of land-based sources.Although, limited studies exist regarding the impacts of marine litter to biota of Mediterranean Sea, these impacts are expected to grow in importance in the future. © 2012 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. All rights reserved.

The types, abundance, distribution and sources of benthic marine litter found in four Greek Gulfs (Patras, Corinth, Echinades and Lakonikos) were studied using bottom trawl nets. Mean distribution and weight densities range between 72e437 Item/km 2 and 6.7e47.4 kg/km 2 . Litter items were sorted into material and usage categories. Plastic litter (56%) is the most dominant material category followed by metal (17%) and glass (11%). Beverage packaging (32%) is the dominant usage category followed by general packaging (28%) and food packaging (21%). Based on the typological results three dominant litter sources were identified; land-based, vessel-based and fishery-based. Application of factor analysis (R-and Q-mode) conducted on both material and usage litter datasets confirmed the existence of the three dominant litter sources. Q-mode analysis further resulted in the quantification of the litter sources; land-based ones provided the majority (69%) of the total litter items followed by vessel-based (26%) and fishery-based (5%) sources. Diverse environmental parameters influence significantly these amounts among the four Gulfs.

Peter Convey
DKA Barnes
A. Morton

The oceanic islands in the Southern Ocean can be considered amongst the remotest shores as, not only are they uninhabited (except for small research stations) and geographically isolated, but they are also enclosed by the oceanographic barrier of the Polar Frontal Zone. We survey island shores in the Scotia Arc mountain chain linking Antarctica to South America, including South Georgia, the South Sandwich archipelago and Adelaide Island off the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, and compare our findings to literature reports from two other Scotia Arc island groups (South Orkney and South Shetland archipelagos). The presence of marine pollution (in the form of beached debris) in this region is significant, both as a measure of man's influence on this isolated environment, and due to direct dangers posed to the fauna. This paper reports the results of surveys of beached marine debris at various times in the last decade for each island group. The majority (>70%) of the items recovered were anthropogenic in origin and most of these were synthetic (plastic or polystyrene). Debris densities varied from zero to 0.3 items m-1 but were typically lower than those reported from other regions of the globe. At some localities (South Georgia), marine-debris data showed a close relationship with local fishery activity, whilst at others (South Sandwich Islands) debris appeared to have a more distant origin. Unlike oceanic debris in warm (non-polar) water localities, there was no evidence of any colonisation by biota. Debris accumulation may provide a useful indirect measure of local fishery activity and compliance with CCAMLR regulations, as well as monitoring the state of the oceans and island shores.

D. T. Tudor
Allan Williams

Litter at beaches can come from more than one source and determining the proportions to assign pollution to different sources is very complex. There is no widely accepted methodology at present that links litter items to their source. The aim of this study was to create a method of assigning a source to litter found on beaches of the Bristol Channel but which could equally be used on any beach. Various methods that attempt to establish the source of beach litter were evaluated; their strengths, weaknesses, applicability and reliability for use on Bristol Channel, UK beaches were considered. Elements of existing methods coupled with new ideas were utilized in the production of a 'refined' methodology: consequently a new method of assigning a source to beach litter was developed. The developed 'Matrix Scoring Technique' was applied to data collected at Minehead beach on the Bristol Channel, UK. Several numerical and nomenclature variations were used to produce a system that reflected the various sources and eliminated as much bias as possible. This cross-tabulated matrix scoring system can produce an insight into the contribution of different source groups to litter found on beaches. This novel approach requires further testing with emphasis on a control data set. KeywordsBeach litter-Coastal Zone Management-Marine debris-Minehead beach-Pollution

G.P. Gabrielides
Abraham Golik
L. Loizides
M.valeria torregrossaV Torregrossa

Measurements of persistent litter on 13 beaches in Spain, Italy (Sicily), Turkey, Cyprus and Israel between 1988 and 1989 show that plastic items are the most abundant in the litter composition, followed by wood, metal and glass items. Remnants of fishing gear are rather rare. It appears that the quantity of litter on a beach is inversely related to its geographical distance to a population center and directly related to the number of visitors frequenting it. Seasonal fluctuations in coastal litter are caused by storm waves which wash the litter landward, leaving the beach clean during winter, and by bathers who pollute it during summer. Based on the nature of the garbage, there are indications that most Mediterranean coastal litter is land-based, in contrast to the reported marine-based litter on the western European shores.

During two daylong surveys aboard fishing boats, one in Patras Gulf and the other in Echinadhes Gulf, marine debris retained in the trawl nets was examined. The marine debris concentration on the seafloor of Patras and Echinadhes Gulfs is 240 and 89 items/km2, respectively. The most abundant debris is plastic followed by metal. The high percentage of beverage packaging in Echinadhes Gulf is attributed to shipping traffic, whilst the high percentage of general packaging in Patras Gulf suggests that the source of this material may be on land and it is transported into the gulf by rivers and seasonal streams.

J.P. Leauté
Philippe Moguedet
P Nerisson
François Galgani

The distribution and abundance of large marine debris were investigated on continental shelves and slopes along European Seas, including the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, the Celtic Sea, the Bay of Biscay and different areas in the north-western basin of the Mediterranean Sea and the Adriatic Sea. On the basis of 27 oceanographic cruises undertaken between November 1992 and August 1998, different types of debris were enumerated, particularly pieces of plastic, plastic and glass bottles, metallic objects, glass, and diverse materials including fishing gear. The results showed considerable geographical variation in concentrations, which ranged from 0 to 101 000 pieces of debris per km2. In most stations sampled, plastic (mainly bags and bottles) accounted for a very high percentage (more than 70%) of total number of debris, and accumulation of specific debris, such as fishing gear, was also common. In some areas, only small amounts of debris were collected on the continental shelf, mostly in canyons descending from the continental slope and in the bathyal plain where high amounts were found down to more than 500 m. Dives using the manned submersibles Cyana and Nautile between 50 and 2700 m allowed accumulation areas to be detected on the sea floor. Analysis of these results revealed the influence of geomorphologic factors, local anthropic activities and river inputs. Temporal trends indicated a stable situation in the Gulf of Lion and seasonal variations in the northern part of the Bay of Biscay. Accumulation areas were detected 200 km west of Denmark, in the southern part of the Celtic Sea and along the south-east coast of France.

Anthony L Andrady

This review discusses the mechanisms of generation and potential impacts of microplastics in the ocean environment. Weathering degradation of plastics on the beaches results in their surface embrittlement and microcracking, yielding microparticles that are carried into water by wind or wave action. Unlike inorganic fines present in sea water, microplastics concentrate persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by partition. The relevant distribution coefficients for common POPs are several orders of magnitude in favour of the plastic medium. Consequently, the microparticles laden with high levels of POPs can be ingested by marine biota. Bioavailability and the efficiency of transfer of the ingested POPs across trophic levels are not known and the potential damage posed by these to the marine ecosystem has yet to be quantified and modelled. Given the increasing levels of plastic pollution of the oceans it is important to better understand the impact of microplastics in the ocean food web.

This study attempts to establish a system for the sequential monitoring of beach litter using webcams placed at the Ookushi beach, Goto Islands, Japan, to establish the temporal variability in the quantities of beach litter every 90 min over a one and a half year period. The time series of the quantities of beach litter, computed by counting pixels with a greater lightness than a threshold value in photographs, shows that litter does not increase monotonically on the beach, but fluctuates mainly on a monthly time scale or less. To investigate what factors influence this variability, the time derivative of the quantity of beach litter is compared with satellite-derived wind speeds. It is found that the beach litter quantities vary largely with winds, but there may be other influencing factors.

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320376381_Beach_litter_dynamics_on_Mediterranean_coasts_Distinguishing_sources_and_pathways

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